Soil Pollution

1.0 Soil
The soil is an irreplaceable resource, formed through natural processes spanning several thousand years. Numerous
factors contribute to the formation of soil from the parent material, bedrock. These factors include mechanical
weathering of rocks due to temperature changes and abrasion, wind, moving water, glaciers, chemical weathering
activities, and lichens. Soils develop slowly in extremely dry or cold climates, while humid and warm climates foster
more rapid development. Under climatic conditions with little variation and sparse vegetation, hard parent material
may require thousands of years to evolve into topsoil. The formation of one inch of topsoil typically takes 200-1000
years, depending on the climate and soil type. Therefore, soil conservation is imperative because soil cannot be
replaced as easily as forests and other environmental entities within our lifetime.

Soil is a biologically active, thin covering over the land comprising a mixture of minerals, organic material, living
organisms, air (gases), and water that collectively support the growth of plant and microorganism life. Soil is broadly
categorized based on its i) texture, determined by its three constituents: clay (very fine particles), silt (fine particles),
and sand (coarse to very coarse particles), and ii) structure, known as "peds," such as balls, blocks, columns, and
plates. Soils with approximately equal mixtures of clay, sand, silt, and humus are referred to as loams.

1.1 Soil profile

Mature soils are organized into a series of zones known as soil
horizons, each possessing a distinct texture and composition that
varies across different soil types. A cross-sectional view of these
horizons in a soil is termed a soil profile.

The top layer, or surface litter layer, is referred to as the “O”

horizon and is comprised mostly of freshly fallen and partially
decomposed leaves, twigs, animal waste, fungi, and other organic
material. This layer is typically brown or black. The uppermost soil
layer, known as the “A” horizon, consists of partially decomposed
organic matter (humus) and some inorganic mineral particles. It is
generally darker and looser than the deeper layers. The roots of
most plants are found in the “O” and “A” layers. As long as these
layers are anchored by vegetation, the soil retains water and
releases it slowly throughout the year, rather than in a forceful
flood. Additionally, these top layers house a significant number of
soil-dwelling organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, earthworms, and other small insects, forming complex food webs
within the soil that aid in recycling soil nutrients and contributing to soil fertility.

Beneath the upper two layers lies the “B” horizon, often referred to as the subsoil, which contains less organic
material and fewer organisms than the “A” horizon. The layer below the subsoil is called the “C” horizon and consists
of weathered parent material. This parent material lacks organic materials. The chemical composition of the C-
horizon helps determine the soil's pH and influences its rate of water absorption and retention.

2.0 Soil degradation

Soil degradation may occur through both i) natural and ii) anthropogenic means. Several natural phenomena are
responsible for soil degradation, including erosion due to excessive rainfall, wind, snowfall, the force of gravity,
covering of magmatic material due to volcanic eruptions, deposition caused by naturally occurring asbestos, marine
saline water intrusions, etc.

2.1 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion can be defined as the movement of surface litter and topsoil from one place to another. While erosion
is a natural process often caused by wind and flowing water, it is greatly accelerated by human activities such as
farming, construction, overgrazing by livestock, burning of grass cover, and deforestation.

Loss of the topsoil makes the soil less fertile and reduces its water-holding capacity. There are broadly two types of
soil erosion, namely, i) sheet erosion, which involves the erosion of soil substrate both from the surface and sub-
surface along a wide area (Fig 2A), and ii) rill erosion, which occurs as water flows over a hillslope and cuts shallow,
curvy channels into the topsoil.

There are several techniques that can protect soil from erosion, and both water and soil can be conserved through
integrated treatment methods.

i) Continuous contour trenches (CCT) are used to enhance the infiltration of water into the soil and reduce runoff,
thereby checking soil erosion. These are shallow trenches dug across the slope of the land and along contour lines
to reduce the force of running water, contributing to soil and water conservation.

ii) Gradonies are employed to convert wastelands into agricultural lands. Narrow trenches with bunds on the
downstream side are built along contours in the upper reaches of the catchment to collect runoff and conserve
moisture from trees or tree crops. The area between the two bunds is used for the cultivation of crops after the
development of a fertile soil cover.

2.2 Volcanic eruptions

A volcano is a vent in the Earth’s crust from which eruptions occur. There are about 1500 potentially active volcanoes
worldwide. When volcanoes erupt, they can spew hot, dangerous gases, ash, lava, and rock that can lead to a loss
of soil fertility, covering the soil with ash and solidified lava, and a reduction in soil microbial diversity. A large-scale
volcanic eruption produces significant amounts of ash and pyroclastic material, containing not only nutrients
(nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sodium, magnesium, etc.) but also toxic elements and metalloids (such
as arsenic, mercury, etc.).

2.3 Naturally occurring asbestos

Naturally occurring asbestos (NOA) is comprised of fibrous silicate minerals and occurs in soils formed from
ultramafic rocks such as serpentine and amphibole, as a result of natural geological processes. Natural weathering
or human activities may disturb NOA-bearing rock or soil and release mineral fibers into the air. These minerals have
been extensively used in industrial and commercial applications for centuries due to their physicochemical
properties, such as heat stability, thermal and electrical insulation, flexibility, tensile strength, and resistance to
chemical and biological degradation

2.4 Excess use of fertilizers

The use of chemical fertilizers has increased significantly over the last few decades post WWII and is expected to rise
even higher. The three primary soil nutrients, commonly referred to as macronutrients are often in short supply viz.
potassium, phosphorus and nitrogen compounds. Certain other elements like boron, zinc and manganese are
necessary in extremely small amounts and are known as micronutrients. Approximately 25 percent of the world’s
crop yield is estimated to be directly attributed to the use of chemical fertilizers. The excessive fertilizers are creating
i) saturation of nutrients in soils and the ii) soil acidification and iii) loss of fertilizer via leaching to groundwater and
via runoff to surface water bodies leading to eutrophication and contamination of drinking water. Overuse of
nitrogen fertilizer leads to nitrogen losses from the soil through volatilization, denitrification, leaching to
groundwater, and through surface runoff and erosion. Depending on the soil conditions, nitrogen is transformed by
microbial activity into nitrous oxide (N2O), a greenhouse gas responsible for global warming and responsible for
depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer.
In addition to fertilizers a large amount of pesticides (chemicals used to kill or control populations of unwanted fungi,
animals or plants often called pests) are also used to ensure a good crop yield. Pesticides not only kill the pests but
also a large variety of living creatures including humans. They may be persistent or non-persistent. Persistent
pesticides do not break down easily they tend to accumulate in the soil and in the bodies of animals in the food
chain. For example, DDT first synthetic organic insecticide to be used.

2.5 Soil salinity and saline water intrusion

Soil salinization is the excessive accumulation of water-soluble salts caused by natural or anthropogenic
factors. Water aquifers in contact with salt deposits also turn saline due to natural rock-water interaction
processes. When water is pumped from these saline aquifers for farmland irrigation, it increases soil
salinity. Major anthropogenic sources of inland salinization in urban areas include irrigating dry areas
lacking proper natural drainage, increased evaporation, decreased precipitation due to climate change,
excessive groundwater pumping, and wastewater with a high salt content.

Even with sufficient soil moisture, crops struggle and die due to the inability to absorb enough water.
Causes of soil salinization include
• dry climates and low precipitation,
• leading to the accumulation of salts;
• high evaporation rates adding salts to the ground surface;
• poor drainage or waterlogging when salts aren't washed away due to a lack of water transport;
• irrigation with salt-rich water intensifying salt content;
• removal of deep-rooted vegetation and a raised water table;
• leakage from geological deposits penetrating groundwater;
• sea-level rise causing seepage of sea salts into lower lands;
• coastal breezes carrying salty air masses to nearby territories;
• seawater submergence followed by salt evaporation;
• and inappropriate fertilizer application, where excess nitrification accelerates soil salinization.

Additionally, rising sea levels threaten coastal agricultural soils and vital coastal wetlands worldwide,
intensifying due to increasing global temperatures known as primary salinization, posing a risk to
agriculture and causing a loss of native biodiversity.

2.6 Solid waste disposal

In India, municipal areas generate approximately 133,760 metric tons of solid waste daily. A significant
portion of this waste remains uncollected and untreated, with only 91,152 tons per day (TPD) being
collected and 25,884 TPD being treated. The solid waste exhibits various complex characteristics,
predominantly comprising organic fractions. As leachate permeates the soil, it transports contaminants,
impacting soil stability and strength. Solid waste serves as a source of toxic metals, hazardous wastes, and
chemicals.

Open burning, although reducing waste volume, is often incomplete, and open dumps frequently become
breeding grounds for rats and flies. The majority of solid waste consists of plastics, particularly
conventional plastics that pose a considerable environmental challenge from manufacturing to disposal.
The burning of plastics, especially PVC, releases dioxin and furan into the atmosphere. Additionally, India
generates a substantial amount of solid waste from thermal power plants in the form of fly ash. When
allowed to accumulate or dumped on the soil, this fly ash covers fertile soil, reducing cultivable areas.

2.7 Acid rain

When acid rain falls, it can affect all types of ecosystems eg. forests as well as lakes and rivers. Acid rain is
absorbed into the soil making it virtually impossible for these trees to survive. As a result of this, trees are
more susceptible to viruses, fungi and insect pests. Long-term changes in the chemistry of some sensitive
soils may have already occurred as a result of acid rain. As acid rain moves through the soils, it can strip
away vital plant nutrients through chemical reactions, thus posing a potential threat to future forest
productivity. Acid rain that seeps into the ground can dissolve nutrients, such as magnesium and calcium,
that trees need to be healthy. Acid rain also causes aluminum to be released into the soil, which makes it
difficult for trees to take up water.

2.8 Oil spill

During oil extraction from oil wells, mineral oils may mix with the soil. Oil spills encompass any release of
crude oil or oil-distilled products (e.g., gasoline, diesel fuels, jet fuels, kerosene, Stoddard solvent,
hydraulic oils, lubricating oils) that can contaminate the land, air, and water environments. Crude oil spills
impact various environmental compartments, including air, surface water, plants, soils, and groundwater
systems. Soil contamination by petroleum and its products alters nearly all soil properties, encompassing
physical, physicochemical, and chemical properties.

Soil particles coated with hydrophobic films of high molecular weight petroleum components lose their
ability to absorb and retain moisture, resulting in a significant loss of water conductivity and capacity.
Increased hydrophobicity causes the upper contaminated layers to dry out, while the cleaner lower layers
suffer from excessive moisture, leading to improper air and water conditions and the development of
anaerobic processes. Petroleum and its products alter the redox properties of the soil, lowering its redox
potential and potentially causing pasting and surface waterlogging due to ineffective aeration and
anaerobic conditions in the soil depth.

Petroleum contamination also changes soil chemical properties, causing humus to become poorer in
humic and fulvic acids, and organic carbon to increase by 2–10 times. The higher carbon elevates the C:N
ratio, while the concentrations of essential elements such as phosphorus and potassium drop. All these
factors adversely affect microbes and plants.

Conclusion
The sources of soil pollution are very varied and range from the primary sector to the final stages of the
life cycle of everyday products. For this reason, in order to prevent and reduce soil pollution, greater
efforts must be made to reduce the use and production of toxic chemicals; to regulate and control
industries to verify that their emissions do not introduce (or do so in very low concentrations and in a
controlled manner) contaminants into the environment; and that production and consumption systems
move towards more sustainable schemes in which waste production is reduced.