SETS

INTRODUCTION
Before knowing about a set, we must know what objects are. Everything in this universe,
whether living or non-living, is called an object. For example, Pen, pencil, book, chair, tree,
bird, etc., are the objects.

A collection of objects is said to be well-defined if it is possible to tell beyond doubt about

every object of the universe, whether it is there in our collection or not.
By the term well-defined we mean that it is defined in such a way that we are able to decide
as to which object of the universe is there in our collection and which object is not there in
our collection.

SETS AND THEIR REPRESENTATION

A set is a collection of well-defined and distinct objects. The objects in a set are called its
members or elements.

Note

i) The collection of all beautiful girls in your school is not a set, since the term beautiful
in vague.
Any one girl may be classed as “beautiful” by one person and excluded by another.
ii) Similarly, the collection of tall boys of your class is not a set, since the term „tall‟ is not
well defined.
However, the collection of all the boys of your class whose height exceeds 145cm is a
set.
iii) Likewise, honest persons, bad boys, intelligent students, rich persons, coward by
people, brave men, fat boys, interesting books, difficult sums, etc., do not form sets.
iv) The objects in a set must be all different and must not be repeated.

NOTATION OF A SET

We usually denote sets by capital letters and their elements by small letters.

Note

i) If x is an element of a set A, we write xA, which means that x belongs to A or that x is

an element of A.
ii) If x is not an element of set A, we say that x does not belong to A, and we write as x∉
A.
iii) It is customary to put the elements of a set within braces { }.

REPRESENTATION OF SETS
There are two methods of representing a set. They are:
I. Roster method (or Tabulation method)
II. Rule method (or Set-builder form)

ROSTER METHOD

Under this method, we just make a list of the objects in our collection and put them within
braces
{ }.

STANDARD SETS OF NUMBERS

i) Natural number set: It is a set of natural numbers, denoted by N.

N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ……….}
ii) Whole number set: It is a set of whole numbers, denoted by W.
W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ……..}
iii) Integer set: I = {……….–3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3 ………}

SET-BUILDER FORM

Under this method, we list the property or properties satisfied by the elements of the set.
We write, {x / x satisfies the properties P} (or) {x : x satisfies the properties P}
That means “The set of all those elements x, such that each x satisfies the properties P‟.

Note

Each of the symbols „/‟ and „ : „ stands for „such that‟

THE EMPTY SET

A set containing no elements is called a null set. It is represented as: φ (phi) or { }

NON-EMPTY & SINGLETON SETS

A set which has atleast one element is called a non-empty set.

Note

We know that φ is a set containing no element at all; {0} is a set containing one element,
namely, zero; therefore, it is a singleton set. 0 is a number, not a set.
Hence, φ, {0} and 0 are all different.

FINITE AND INFINITE SETS

A set in which the process of counting of elements surely comes to an end, is called a finite
set.
(or)
A set containing countable number of elements is called a finite set.

CARDINAL NUMBER OF A FINITE SET

The number of distinct elements in a finite set A is called the cardinal number of set A and is
denoted by n(A).
Note: The repeated elements will not be counted.

EQUAL SETS

Two sets A and B are said to be equal, written as A = B, if every element of A is in B and
every element of B is in A.

Note

If sets A and B are not equal, we write A≠ B.

SUB SETS

Consider the sets: X = set of all students in your school, Y = set of all students in your class.
We note that every element of Y is also an element of X; we say that Y is a subset of X. The
fact that Y is subset of X is expressed in symbols as Y ⊂ X. The symbol ⊂ stands for „is a
subset of‟ or „is contained in‟.

Definition

A set A is said to be a subset of a set B if every element of A is also an element of B.

In other words, A ⊂ B if whenever a∈A, then a∈B. It is often convenient to use the symbol
“⇒” which means implies. Using this symbol, we can write the definition of subset as
follows:
A ⊂ B if a∈A⇒ a ∈ B
We read the above statement as “A is a subset of B if a is an element of A implies that a is
also an element of B”. If A is not a subset of B, we write A⊄ B.
We may note that for A to be a subset of B all that is needed is that every element of A is in
B. It is possible that every element of B may or may not be in A. If it so happens that every
element of B is also in A, then we shall also have B ⊂ A. In this case, A and B are the same
sets so that we have A ⊂ Band B ⊂ A ⇔ A = B, where “⇔” is a symbol for two way
implications, and is usually read as if and only if (briefly written as “iff”).
It follows from the above definition that every set A is a subset of itself, i.e., A⊂ A. Since the
empty set φ has no elements, we agree to say that φ is a subset of every set.

SUBSET OF SET OF REAL NUMBERS

As noted in Section 1.6, there are many important subsets of R. We give below the names of
some of these subsets.
The set of natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .}
The set of integers Z = {. . ., –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
p
The set of rational numbers Q = {x : x = q , p, q ∈ Z and q ≠ 0} which is read “ Q is the set
p
of all numbers x such that x equals the quotient q , where p and q are integers and q is not
5 5 1
 ,3
zero”. Members of Q include –5 (which can be expressed as 1) 7 2 (which can be
7 11

expressed as 2 ) and 3 .
The set of irrational numbers, denoted by T, is composed of all other real numbers. Thus T =
{x : x ∈ R and x ∉ Q}, i.e., all real numbers that are not rational.
Members of T include 2, 5 and 
Some of the obvious relations among these subsets are: N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q, Q ⊂ R, T ⊂ R, N ⊄ T.

INTERVALS AS SUBSET OF R
Let a, b ∈ R and a < b. Then the set of real numbers { y : a < y < b} is called an open interval
and is denoted by (a, b). All the points between a and b belong to the open interval (a, b) but
a, b themselves do not belong to this interval.
The interval which contains the end points also is called closed interval and is denoted by [a,
b]. Thus [a, b] = {x : a ≤ x ≤ b}
We can also have intervals closed at one end and open at the other, i.e., [ a, b ) = {x : a ≤ x <
b} is an open interval from a to b, including a but excluding b. ( a, b ] = { x : a < x ≤ b } is an
open interval from a to b including b but excluding a.
These notations provide an alternative way of designating the subsets of set of real numbers.
For example, if A = (–3, 5) and B = [–7, 9], then A ⊂ B. The set [0, ∞) defines the set of non-
negative real numbers, while set (−∞, 0) defines the set of negative real numbers. The set (−
∞, ∞) describes the set of real numbers in relation to a line extending from – ∞ to ∞.

On real number line, various types of intervals described above as subsets of R, are shown in
the Figure 1.1.
Here, we note that an interval contains infinitely many points.
For example, the set {x : x ∈ R, –5 < x ≤ 7}, written in set-builder form, can be written in the
form of interval as (–5, 7] and the interval [–3, 5) can be written in set- builder form as {x : –
3 ≤ x < 5}.
The number (b – a) is called the length of any of the intervals (a, b), [a, b], [a, b) or (a, b].

POWER SETS
The set of all possible subsets of a set A is called the power set of A, denoted by P(A).
Note: If A contains „n‟ elements, then P(A) contains 2n sets.

UNIVERSAL SETS
Any set which a super is set of all the sets under consideration is called a Universal set.
Representation: Ω or S or μ

PROPERTIES OF SETS

i) Every set is its own subset.

ii) Empty set is a subset of each set.
Let A = { } = φ [i.e., empty set] and B = {1, 2, 3, 4}
It is clear that set A has no element and we can say that there is no element in φ which
is not in B. Hence, each element of φ is an element of B.
⇒B
Therefore, empty set is a subset of each set.
iii) For any two sets A and B, A = B  A  B and B  A.

Let A and B be two unequal sets, i.e., do not contain exactly same elements, like an
element a that belongs to one set but not to the other.
But if a∈A, then a ∈ B since A  B and if a ∈ B, then a ∈ A since B  A.
Hence, „a‟ belongs to both A and B.
That is, there cannot be any element in one set that does not belong to the other set. So,
and B contain exactly the same elements i.e., A = B.
Therefore, for any two sets, A = B ⇔ A  B and B  A.

iv) If A  B and B  C, then A  C.

Let‟s observe the figure 1.2
From the figure, it is clear that x is the part of A (x ∈ A) and x is the part of B (x∈ B)
 [A⊂ B]
x is the part of C (x ∈ c) [ B ⊂ C]
∴x∈ A ⇒x∈ c
i.e., A⊂ C.

VENN DIAGRAMS
These are simple closed figures used for representations. These figures were first used in
1880 by John Venn, an English Mathematician. These figures were also used by Leonard
Euler (1700 – 1783). So, these closed figures are called Venn-Euler diagrams or simply Venn
diagrams.

A set is represented by circles or a closed geometrical figure inside the universal. An element
of a set A is represented by a point within the circle which represents A.

Note:The universal set μ is represented by a rectangular region.

IDENTIFICATION OF ELEMENTS OF SETS FROM VENN DIAGRAM

Let A, B be two sets and μisa universal set; the Venn diagram of these sets is as:

The elements of set A = {a, b}

The elements of set B = {a, b, s}

The elements of set μ = {a, b, s, m, n, o, p}

OPERATION ON SETS
UNION OF SETS
The union of sets A1, A2……. is the set of these elements of at least one of these sets A1,
A2…..
 

It is denoted by n=1 An on A1∪ A2∪ A3 …….


Symbolically, n=1 An = {x : x ∈An for atleast n ∈ N}


Symbolically, n=1 An = {x : x ∈ An for atleast one value of n of 1, 2, 3…….k}

VENN DIAGRAM REPRESENTAION OF UNION

The collection of elements of set A and set B is called the Union of two sets, A and B.

Shaded area denotes A∪ B.

1. Union of sets is Commutative
Let A = {a, b, c}, B = {p, q, r}
A ∪ B = {a, b, c} ∪ {p, q, r}
⇒ A U B = {a, b, c, p, q, r}
B ∪ A = {p, q, r} ∪ {a, b, c}
⇒ B ∪ A = {p, q, r, a, b, c}
It is clear that A∪ B and B∪ A have the same elements.
They are equal sets: A ∪ B = B∪ A.
Therefore, the union of sets is commutative.
2. Union of sets is Associative
Let A = {a, b, c, d}, B = {p, q, r, s} and C = {w, x, y, z} then
A ∪ B = {a, b, c, d} ∪ {p, q, r, s}
= {a, b, c, d, p, q, r, s}
B ∪ C = {p, q, r, s} ∪ {w, x, y, z}
= {p, q, r, s, w, x, y, z}
A ∪ (B ∪ C) = {a, b, c, d}∪ {p, q, r, s, w, x, y, z}
= {a, b, c, d, p, q, r, s, w, x, y, z}
(A ∪ B) C = {a, b, c, d, p, q, r, s} ∪ {w, x, y, z}
= {a, b, c, d, p, q, r, s, w, x, y, z}
We observe that A ∪ (B ∪C) and (A ∪ B) ∪ C have the same elements.
They are equal sets: A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A U B) ∪C.
Therefore, the union of sets is Associative.

3. Union of sets follows Law of Identity

Let A = {a, b, c}
φ = { } null set.
 Now, let‟s find A ∪ B and A:
A ∪ φ = {a, b, c} ∪ { } = {a, b, c}
φ∪A = { } ∪ {a, b, c} = {a, b, c}
We observe that (A ∪φ ) and (φ ∪ A) have the same elements.
Therefore, union of sets follows law of identity.
Note
i) We see that union of any set A and empty set is the set A.
ii) φ is the identity set for the operation of the union.
4. Union of sets follows Idempotent Law
Let A = {x, y, z}
Can we find out A∪A?
A ∪A = {x, y, z} ∪{x, y, z} = {x, y, z} = A
⇒ A ∪A = A
Therefore, union of sets follows the Idempotent law.

INTER SECTION OF SETS

The set of elements that belongs to both set A and set B is called the intersection of two sets
A and B.
This is written as A ∩ B, read as „A‟ intersection „B‟.

In the set-builder form:

A ∩ B = {x/x ∈A „^‟ (denotes „and‟) x ∈ B

The intersection of sets A1, A2 …… is the set of all the elements which are common to all the
sets A1, A2…..
It is denoted by An or A1 A2 A3 ……..


Symbolically, n 1 An = {x : x ∈An for all n}


Similarly, n 1 An = {x : x ∈An for n = 1, 2, 3 ………k}

VENN DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF INTERSECTION

The set of elements that belong to both set A and set B is called the intersection of two sets A
and B.
Shaded area denotes A ∩ B.

LAWS OF INTERSECTION OF SETS

1. INTERSECTION OF SETS IS COMMUTATIVE
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
A ∩ B = The set of elements that are common for both A and B.
= {2, 4, 6}
B ∩ A = The set of elements that are common for both B and A.
= {2, 4, 6}
We observe that, the elements that are in A ∩ B and B ∩ A are same. They are equal
sets.
i.e., A ∩ B = B ∩ A.
Therefore, the intersection of two sets is commutative.
2. INTERSECTION OF SETS IS ASSOCIATIVE
Let A = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and C = {1, 2, 3, 4}
A ∩ B = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11} ∩ {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} = {2}
(A ∩B) ∩C = {2} ∩{1, 2, 3, 4} = {2}
(B ∩C) = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}{1, 2, 3, 4} = {2, 4}
A ∩ (B ∩C) = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11} ∩ {2, 4} = {2}
It is clear that (A ∩ B) ∩ C and A ∩ (B ∩ C) have the same elements.
They are equal sets. i.e., (A ∩ B) ∩C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
Therefore, the intersection of two sets is associative.

3. INTERSECTION OF SETS FOLLOW LAW OF IDENTITY

Let A = {a, b, c, d}
φ = { } null set
A ∩φ = {a, b, c, d} ∩{φ } = φ
φ ∩A = { } ∩ {a, b, c, d} = φ i.e., A ∩ φ = φ ∩ A= φ
This is called law of identity.
Therefore, intersection of sets follows the law of identity.
4. INTERSECTION OF SETS FOLLOWS IDEMPOTENT LAW
Let A = {a, b, c}
Let‟s find out A ∩A?
Let‟s try
A ∩ A = {a, b, c } ∩{a, b, c} = {a, b, c} = A
⇒ A∩A=A
This is called Idempotent law.
Therefore, intersection of sets follows the Idempotent Law.

PAIRWISE DISJOINT SETS

A family of sets A1, A2,………, An is said to be pairwise disjoint family of sets of no two
members of this family of sets have a common element. Thus the family of sets A1, A2,
A3,……An is said to be pairwise disjoint sets if Ai ∩ Aj = φ for i ≠ j.
DIFFERENCE OF SETS
The difference of two sets A and B is obtained by the elements which are present in A but not
in B.
It is represented by A – B. i.e., (A – B) is the set of elements of A which are not the elements
of B.

NOTE
i) Clearly, A – B ≠B – A
Hence, difference of two sets is not commutative.
ii) If A⊆ B, then A – B = φ

VENN DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF DIFFERENCE OF TWO

SETS

Remarks 1) Clearly A – B ≠ B – A
Hence difference of two sets is not commutative.
2) A – B can be obtained by deleting the elements of B, from element of A.

COMPLEMET OF A SET

Let U be the universal set and Aa subset of U. Then the complement of A is the set of all
elements of U which are not the elements of A. Symbolically, we write A′ to denote the
complement of A with respect to U. Thus, A′ = {x :x ∈ U and x ∉ A }. Obviously A′ = U – A

VENN DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEMENT SET

The elements of all that are not in A constitute a new set called the complement of A and
denoted by A° or Ac and read as “A complement”
PROPERTIES OF COMPLIMENT SETS
1. If A be a set, A‟ be its complement and S be the universal set, then
(i) A ∩ A‟ = φ (ii) A ∪ A‟ = S (iii) φ‟ = S (iv) S‟ = φ
These laws are called complement laws.
Proof
Let x ∈A ∩ A‟ ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ A‟
⇒x∈ A and x ∈ A‟ [No such x exists]
Hence A ∩ A‟ contains no element ∴ A ∩ A‟ = φ
(ii) Let x ∈ A ∪ A‟ ⇔ x ∈ A or x ∈ A‟
⇔x∈ A or x ∉ A‟ [This is true for all x ∈S]
⇔x∈ S
Hence A ∪ A‟ = S [This is true for all x ∈ S]
(iii) Let x = φ‟ ⇔x∉φ
⇔x∈ S
Hence φ = S
(iv) Let x ∈S‟ ⇒ x ∉ S [No such x is possible]
Hence S‟ contains no element of S
∴ S‟ = φ

SOME THEOREMS ON NUMBER OF ELEMENTS ON SETS

Theorem 1. If A and B are finite sets, then n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)
Proof: Let n(A) = p, n(B) = q, n(A ∩ B) = r, where A and B are non-empty finite sets.
While counting the elements of A∪ B, the elements of A ∩ B are counted twice
once, in counting of elements of A and second time.
From the figure 1.11 it is clear that the sets A – B, A ∩ B and B – A are disjoint
and their union is A ∪ B.
∴n(A ∪ B) = (p – r) + r + (q – r) = p + q – r
Hence n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)

Note1. If A and B are disjoint sets, we have A ∩ B = φ so that n(A ∩ B) = 0

∴n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B)
2. n(A ∪ B) = = n(A) + n(B) ⇔ A and B are disjoint sets.
3. Following results are clear from the figure 1.11.
(i) n(A) = n(A – B) + n(A ∩ B)
(ii) n(B) = n(B – A) + n(A ∩ B)
(iii) n(A ∪ B) = n(A – B) + n(B – A) + n(A ∩ B)
Theorem 2. If A, B, C be any three finite sets, then
n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A ∩ B) – n(B ∩ C) – n(A ∩ C) + n(A ∩
B ∩ C)
Proof: n[A ∪ B ∪ C] = n[(A ∪ B) ∪ C] = n(A ∪ B) + n(C) – n[(A ∩ B) ∩ C]
= n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B) + n(C) – n[(A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C)]
= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n (A ∩ B) – [n (A ∩ C) + n (B ∩ C) – n{(A ∩ C) ∩ (B ∩
C)}]
= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n (A ∩ B) – n (B ∩ C) – n(A ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

Theorem 3. Number of elements belonging to exactly two of the sets A, B and C.n(A ∩ B) +
n(B ∩C) + n(A ∩ C) – 3n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
Proof: Number of elements belonging to exactly two of the sets A, B and C.
= [n(A ∩ B) – n (A ∩ B ∩ C)] + [n (B ∩ C)
– n(A ∩ B ∩ C)] + [n (A ∩ C) – n (A ∩ B ∩ C)]
= n(A ∩ B) + n (B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ C) – 3n(A ∩ B ∩ C).
Theorem [Link] of elements belonging to exactly one of the sets A, B and C
= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – 2n(A ∩ B) – 2n(B ∩ C)
– 2n (A ∩ C) + 3n(A ∩ B ∩ C).
Proof: Number of elements belonging to exactly one of the sets A, B and C
=p+q+r
= [n(A – B) – y] + [n(B – C) – x] + [n(C – A) – z]
= [n(A) – n(A ∩ B)] – y + [n(B) – n(B ∩ C)]
– x + [n (C) – n (C ∩ A)] – z
= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A ∩ B) – n(B ∩ C) – n(A ∩ C) – x – z – y
= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A ∩ B) – n (B ∩ C) – n(A ∩ C)
– [n (A ∩ B) – n (A ∩ B ∩ C)]
– [n (B ∩ C) – n (A ∩ B ∩ C)] – [n (A ∩ C) – n (A ∩ B ∩ C)]
= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – 2n(A ∩ B) – 2n(B ∩ C)
– 2n(A ∩ C) + 3n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

Theorem 5. n(A′ ∪ B′) = n(S) – n(A ∩ B)

Proof: n(A′ ∪ B′) = n(A ∩ B)′ = n(S) – n(A ∩ B)

Theorem 6. n(A′ ∩ B′) = n(S) – n(A ∪ B)

Proof: n(A′ ∩ B′) = n(A ∪ B)′ = n(S) – n(A ∪ B)