RAT 292 SENSORS AND ACTUATORS FOR ROBOTS MODULE V

Linear actuation mechanisms- Belt-driven and screw-driven actuators, Pneumatically and

hydraulically driven linear actuators, Rack-and-pinion driven actuators, Linear motor driven
actuators. Transmission mechanisms-Cams and Cam followers, working principle. Gears and
gear trains, ratchet and pawl, belt drive, advantages of belt drive, bearings classification and
selection of bearings. Electro thermal, electro-optical and electrochemical actuators, Piezo-
actuators, pneumatic muscles .Micro-actuators- Electrostatic, Electromagnetic, Piezoelectric,
Fluid, Thermal, Shape memory alloy, characteristics of micro actuators- Stroke, Force/torque,
Stiffness, Input energy, Efficiency, Linearity, Hysteresis, Response time, Drift, Bandwidth.

LINEAR ACTUATOR
A linear actuator changes the rotational motion of a motor into a straight line. Conventional
electric motors move in a circle, while linear actuators move forward and backward. The push
and pull action allows the device to slide, tip, and lift items with the push of a button. It converts
energy into a motion or force and can be powered by pressurized fluid or air, as well as
electricity. Linear actuators offer a cost-effective solution to move loads in a straight line. The
device comes in multiple forms, ranging from telescoping to twisted and coiled. Widely used for
converting rotational motion into push or pull linear motion, which can be used for lifting,
dropping, sliding, or tilting of machines or materials.
Linear actuators work by moving an object or piece of equipment in a straight line, moving an
object extremely accurately and repeatable if required. The primary reason for designing a linear
actuator into a system is for the need to move a payload in a linear fashion rather than a rotary
one. As most conventional electric motors are rotary, a linear actuator is used to convert rotary
motion to linear motion. Today, linear actuators play a significant role in a broad range of advanced
automation applications. From the simple movement of raw material in a manufacturing environment to
advanced robotic systems for the precise positioning of a machine tool, linear actuators provide fast,
efficient and repeatable motion for a variety of tasks. Two of the most widely used types of linear
actuators are belt-driven and ball screw driven actuators. Both types are employed in similar applications,
but differ significantly in function especially when it comes to the drive mechanisms. When choosing a
linear actuator the advantages and disadvantages of each type must be carefully considered to provide the
best results for a particular linear motion application. Linear actuators can be used in so many types
of applications, including pick& place, pressing, stamping indexer, conveyor diverting, CNC
milling, laser cutting, welding, measuring, moving doors and other mechanical linkage control,
etc.

Linear Actuators have the following features:

 High repeatability
 Positioning accuracy
 Smooth operation
 Long life
 Easy maintenance or maintenance free
 Protection ratings available for some models
 Suitable for harsh environments

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 RAT 292 SENSORS AND ACTUATORS FOR ROBOTS MODULE V

 Compact design
 Rugged and reliable
 Safe operation
 Versatile

BELT-DRIVEN ACTUATOR
The belt-driven actuator operates under the same principles as the conveyor belt system.
The belt drive translates rotary motion to linear motion via a timing belt connected between
two circular pulleys. The timing belt is usually made from a fiber-reinforced elastomer, but
many other belt materials are available for more demanding applications. The belt contains
teeth that interface with the rotor pulleys to efficiently transfer torque and prevent slipping.
The belt drive is enclosed within an aluminum body while the carriage rides on top, and the
driveshaft interface is typically situated perpendicular to the side of the actuator. Belt drives
consist of a long timing belt that runs around a pulley at each end of a rodless actuator. The
pulley at one end is driven by an electric motor, and usually through a gear reducer. The pulley at
the opposite end is an idler pulley and usually provides tension adjustment for the belt.

BALL SCREW - DRIVEN ACTUATORS

The fundamental principle behind the ball screw driven actuator is essentially an
improvement over a lead screw driven system. In ball screw driven actuators, the
rotation of the ball screw drives the ball nut/mounted carriage due to the fact that the
interface between the stud and ball screw is essentially a ball bearing system, where
hardened steel balls in the nut roll along the raceway of the stud. Similar to the belt-
driven actuator, the driving components of the ball screw driven actuator are enclosed
within an aluminum body while the carriage moves on top. In contrast to belt-driven
actuators, the driveshaft interface is located in line with the ball screw, off the end of the
actuator. Ball screws consist of a screw and nut with ball bearings inside the nut. This allows
the screw to rotate inside the nut with very little friction. It enables a linear actuator to move with
very little loss of force due to friction, and allows it to move at higher speeds and longer duty
cycles without overheating. However, ball screws are audibly noisy due to the ball bearings in
the nut rattling around

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 RAT 292 SENSORS AND ACTUATORS FOR ROBOTS MODULE V

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BELT –DRIVEN AND SCREW –DRIVEN ACTUATORS

LINEAR PNEUMATIC ACTUATOR

A linear pneumatic actuator can move something in a straight line. For example, a rod is moved in and
out of a cylinder in a linear motion by a pneumatic energy source. Pneumatics provide both high speed
and force in a small footprint. They are best suited for fast, point-to-point movements, and can
withstand hard stops without damage. Applications that require many actuators in the same
process benefit from the ease of pneumatic installations and the ability to drive many devices
from a single compressor. In applications that require explosion-proof components, or where
there are other environmental safety concerns, such as heat build-up, pneumatic linear actuators
are typically preferred over electric versions

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 RAT 292 SENSORS AND ACTUATORS FOR ROBOTS MODULE V

WORKING
Pneumatic actuators are reliant on the presence of some form of pressurised gas or compressed
air entering a chamber where pressure is built up. Once this exceeds the required pressure levels
in contrast to the atmospheric pressure outside of the chamber, it creates a controlled kinetic
movement of a piston or gear which can be directed in either a straight mechanical motion.
Pneumatic linear actuators consist of a piston inside a hollow cylinder. Pressure from an external
compressor or manual pump moves the piston inside the cylinder. As pressure increases, the
cylinder moves along the axis of the piston, creating a linear force. The piston returns to its
original position by either a spring-back force or fluid being supplied to the other side of the
piston.

• Pneumatic actuators generate precise linear motion by providing accuracy, for example,
within 0.1 inches and repeatability within .001 inches.
• Pneumatic actuators typical applications involve areas of extreme temperatures. A typical
temperature range is -40°F to 250°F.
• Pneumatic actuators avoid using hazardous materials.

HYDRAULIC LINEAR ACTUATORS

Hydraulic Actuators, as used in industrial process control, employ hydraulic pressure to drive an
output member. These are used where high speed and large forces are required. The fluid used in
hydraulic actuator is highly incompressible so that pressure applied can be transmitted
instantaneously to the member attached to it. when a large amount of force is required to operate
a valve (for example, the main steam system valves), hydraulic actuators are normally used.
Hydraulic actuators come in many designs, piston types are most common. A typical piston-type
hydraulic actuator. It consists of a cylinder, piston, spring, hydraulic supply and return line, and
stem.

The piston slides vertically inside the cylinder and separates the cylinder into two chambers. The
upper chamber contains the spring and the lower chamber contains hydraulic oil. The hydraulic
supply and return line is connected to the lower chamber and allows hydraulic fluid to flow to

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and from the lower chamber of the actuator. The stem transmits the motion of the piston to a
valve.

Hydraulic actuator system uses the concept proposed by Pascal generally known as Pascal’s Law
or Pascal’s Principle.

Pascal’s Law states that the pressure applied at a specific point to a confined fluid in a container
is transmitted equally in all the directions within the fluid as well as the walls of the container
without any loss.

Suppose, if pressure P is applied to an area A, then the resultant force due to an applied pressure
will be

F=P*A

Now, if a certain force F is applied in a smaller area to have pressure P in a confined fluid, then
the force produced on a larger area as a result of it can be comparatively larger than the force
created by the pressure. In this way, the applied pressure at a certain point is used to generate
very large forces and this principle is utilized by various hydraulic systems.

WORKING

Initially, with no hydraulic fluid pressure, the spring force holds the valve in the closed position.
As fluid enters the lower chamber, pressure in the chamber increases. This pressure results in a
force on the bottom of the piston opposite to the force caused by the spring. When the hydraulic
force is greater than the spring force, the piston begins to move upward, the spring compresses,
and the valve begins to open.

As the hydraulic pressure increases, the valve continues to open. Conversely, as hydraulic oil is
drained from the cylinder, the hydraulic force becomes less than the spring force, the piston

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 RAT 292 SENSORS AND ACTUATORS FOR ROBOTS MODULE V

moves downward, and the valve closes. By regulating amount of oil supplied or drained from the
actuator, the valve can be positioned between fully open and fully closed.

The principles of operation of a hydraulic actuator are like those of the pneumatic actuator. Each
uses some motive force to overcome spring force to move the valve. Also, hydraulic actuators
can be designed to fail-open or fail-closed to provide a fail-safe feature.

RACK AND PINION ACTUATORS

Rack and pinion actuators are mechanical devices used to automatically open and close valves or
dampers, usually for industrial applications.“Rack and pinion” is a generic term for a pair of
gears which convert linear motion into rotational motion. A linear gear bar called “the rack”
engages teeth on a circular gear called "the pinion". Linear force exerted on the rack will cause a
rotational motion of the pinion. For valve automation, a common actuator design uses two
piston-type racks moving in opposite directions to ensure balanced forces on the pinion.
Typically, pneumatic air pressure is used to power the actuator. By applying pressure to the
piston racks, the pinion can be turned to the desired position. The pinion bottom connects to the
valve stem to open and close the valve as the pinion turns.

WORKING

Rack and pinion is a type of rotary actuator comprising two parts or two types of gears, one of
which is a rack with a linear gear movement that moves against the pinion with circular gears.
The linear movement of the rack, as illustrated in Figure is transferred through teeth to the gears
in the pinion, such that rotary movement in the actuator is transferred to the connected valve
through pinion. The rack has linear motion and the pinion has rotary motion. The linear motion
of the rack is achieved through hydraulic force that is transferred to the pinion, which moves the
rotary and cycles the valve 90 degrees to open or closed position.

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 RAT 292 SENSORS AND ACTUATORS FOR ROBOTS MODULE V

There are two common configurations of rack and pneumatic pinion actuators. A double acting
actuator has provisions for delivering or exhausting air from both sides of the piston. Small
control valves coordinate the delivery and removal of pressurized air or gas to drive the pistons
inward or outward, producing torque in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction. Its operation
could also be described as "air to open, air to close"

Rack and Pinion Pneumatic of rotary actuators work in conjunction with a cylindrical piston,
which is connected to a gear called a rack. From the moment the actuator starts working, the
output shaft, piston and rack gear start working together in a linear motion. There are two racks
on either side of a pinion gear. Such pneumatic actuators can work with two racks to double the
output torque. In this way, the actuator enables the actuation of any flap or valve.

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LINEAR MOTOR DRIVEN ACTUATORS

• Linear motor actuators are also capable of long travel lengths with Rack and Pinion
Pneumatic of rotary actuators work in conjunction with a cylindrical piston, which is
connected to a gear called a rack.
• From the moment the actuator starts working, the output shaft, piston and rack gear start
working together in a linear motion.
• There are two racks on either side of a pinion gear. Such pneumatic actuators can work
with two racks to double the output torque. In this way, the actuator enables the actuation
of any flap or valve.

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TRANSMISSION MECHANISMS

CAMS AND CAM FOLLOWERS

 A cam is a rotating element that gives oscillating or reciprocating motion to the follower
which is another element of this machine by direct contact.
 Cam follower is components that are internally attached to a cam. Cams exist in many
applications dishwashers, sprinklers, etc but the most famous example is the camshaft in
a car. The goal of a cam is to convert rotary motion into linear motion.
There are several types of cams, including cylindrical and plate varieties. Without a cam
follower, a cam would not be of much use, as the cams must make contact with the followers to
transfer the rotary motion into linear motion. Followers are built with special cam follower
bearings to make this shifting possible.

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• Cam follower bearings, also known as track followers, can come in a variety of designs
but are usually made with an extra thick outer ring.
• This design allows cam follower bearings to handle high radial loads while accepting
extreme shock loads without the risk of fracturing a soft core part, depending on the
application.

TYPES OF CAM
• Disk or Plate cam
• Cylindrical cam
• Translating cam
• Wedge cam
• Spiral cam
• Heart-shaped cam
A follower is a rotating or an oscillating element of a machine that follows the motion of cam by
direct contact. If a cam moves in reciprocating motion the follower moves in vertically respect to
the axis of the cam.

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TYPES OF FOLLOWER
• Knife edge follower
• Roller follower
• Flat-faced follower
• Spherical follower
• Radial follower
• Offset Follower
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF CAM AND FOLLOWER
• The working principle of Cam and Follower depends on the mechanism of the
combination of both Cam and Follower.
CAM MECHANISM
• Cam is a mechanical component which is a rotating circle or eclipse about the minor axis
of the Follower.
• Hence it can be explained easily that Cam is a mechanical component that transmits
reciprocating, oscillating or linear motion to Follower.
• Cam’s shape is usually an oval or an imperfect circle or an eclipse. If an engineer
considers an oval-shaped Cam then he or she can see the movements which will form the
outer burge, which is periodic to its locus.
FOLLOWER MECHANISM
• A follower is a mechanical component concerning which, the Cam rotates in an
oscillatory or circular motion. Follower inhibits the push and pulls of the Cam. A
follower is used to transfer the motion to the required machine part.
• The Follower rotates in an oscillating or circular arc
IMPORTANCE OF CAM AND FOLLOWER
• In the field of mechanical engineering, the Cam-follower mechanism plays a significant
role in achieving even distribution of forces in a single machine component.
• By attaching a cylindrical roller in a machine component spontaneous movement can be
achieved by an engineer.
• Cam follower can be used in a machine component regardless of the shape and size of the
nut. Apart from that, varieties of linear motions can be found by utilizing the mechanism.

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 RAT 292 SENSORS AND ACTUATORS FOR ROBOTS MODULE V

• Moreover, due to higher thickness as compared to other bearings Cam follower

mechanism can absorb a higher amount of shock that increases the mechanical efficiency
of a machine component.
• Furthermore, the mechanism is entirely versatile that it can be used in a soda machine or
also in an aircraft application. Besides, the mechanism is also used in the conveyor belt.

GEAR
• Gear can be defined as a toothed wheel that can be engaged in another toothed wheel in
order to transmit energy that gives the change of speed and direction of motion. I
• t is widely used in mechanical devices.
• The teeth of the gear are generally carved on wheels, cylinders, or cones.
• A gear is a component within a transmission device that transmits the rotational force to
another gear or device.
GEAR TRAIN
• A gear train is a collection of gear wheels that transmit motion from one shaft to another.
Ordinary gear trains consist of simple and compound gear trains.
• The epicyclic gear trains, which allow relative motion between gear axes, are the other
types of gear trains. The gear trains are necessary when significant reduction in velocity
or mechanical advantage is desired.
• The distance between two shafts is not excessively long but not short enough to allow for
the use of a single big gear.
• When a particular velocity ratio is desired

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RACHET AND PAWL

The purpose of a ratchet and pawl is to allow a shaft to rotate in one direction [Link] ratchet
and pawl mechanism is used wherever rotation is required in one direction only, e.g. in yacht
winches and fishing reels.

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 RAT 292 SENSORS AND ACTUATORS FOR ROBOTS MODULE V

BELT DRIVES
Belt Drives are a type of frictional drives used for transmitting powers from one shaft to another
by means of pulleys which rotate at the same speed or at the different speed.

It consists of two pulleys over which an endless belt it passed over them. The mechanical power
or rotary motion is transmitted from the driving pulley to the driven pulley because of the
frictional grip that exists between the belt and the pulley surface.
• The portion of the belt which is having less tension is called slack side and the one which
has higher tension is called tight side.

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• There are four commonly used types of belts are:

• Flat belt
• V belt
• Circular
ADVANTAGES OF BELT DRIVE
• Flexible, simple in construction, smooth operations.
• Efficient at high speeds and protects against overload.
• Running and maintenance cost is low.
• Relatively long life and easy to work with.

BEARINGS
• Bearings are "parts that assist objects' rotation".
• Machines that use bearings include automobiles, airplanes, electric generators and so on.
They are even used in household appliances that we all use every day, such as
refrigerators, vacuum cleaners and air-conditioners.

• Reduce friction and make rotation more smooth

• Protect the part that supports the rotation, and maintain the correct position for the
rotating shaft

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 RAT 292 SENSORS AND ACTUATORS FOR ROBOTS MODULE V

• They transfer motion, i.e. they support and guide components which turn relative to one
another
• They transmit forces
CLASSIFICATION
• Rolling bearings and sleeve bearings
• In a sleeve or plain bearing, the axle and the bearing move in opposite directions on a
sliding surface. By contrast, the two components of a rolling bearing that move towards
one another – the inner and outer rings – are separated by rolling elements.

PIEZO ACTUATORS
Piezo actuators operate on the inverse piezoelectric effect: when voltage is applied, the actuator
contracts or expands. But when the actuator is blocked from moving (by a load applied in the
direction of travel), it generates a force. This relationship between displacement and force in
piezo materials is an inverse relationship. In other words, the more force an actuator must
generate against a load, the less travel it can produce. A “free” actuator — one that experiences
no resistance to movement — will produce its maximum displacement, often referred to as “free
stroke,” and generate zero force.

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 RAT 292 SENSORS AND ACTUATORS FOR ROBOTS MODULE V

Conversely, when an actuator is blocked from moving, it will produce its maximum force, which
is referred to as the blocked, or blocking, force. Theoretically, when the actuator is blocked, it is
working against a load with infinitely high stiffness. But materials with infinite stiffness don’t
occur in the real world, so the blocking force is determined by applying a voltage to the actuator,
with no load applied. This “free” operation, as described above, generates the actuator’s
maximum displacement, or free stroke. A force is then applied to return the actuator to its
original length. This force is measured and recorded as the blocking [Link] stiffness of the
actuator is the ratio of blocking force to free [Link] are two types of load that can be
applied to a piezo actuator: a spring load, which increases as the actuator moves, or a constant
load, which does not vary. The actuator’s ability to produce displacement and force depends on
the type of load.

PIEZO –ACTUATORS WORKING

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 RAT 292 SENSORS AND ACTUATORS FOR ROBOTS MODULE V

The working principle of a piezoelectric actuator is, once the voltage is applied to piezoelectric
actuators then they generate a small displacement through a high force capacity, so these are
used in many applications like ultra-precise positioning, in high forces handling & generation in
stationary or dynamic conditions.

The configuration of the piezoelectric actuator can change greatly based on application. These
devices are Ultrasonic actuators which are designed specifically to generate strokes of numerous
micrometers at ultrasonic frequencies above 20 kHz. They are particularly used for positioning,
controlling vibration & quick switching applications.

ADVANTAGES OF PIEZOELECTRIC ACTUATORS

 Simple design
 Least moving parts,
 High-reliability characteristics
 These are simply optimized for particular applications like a non-magnetic, cryogenic, ultra-
high vacuum & high stiffness.
 High force for each unit area Resolution is unlimited
 Vacuum &Clean Room Compatible
 Generation of High Force
 No Wear & Tear
 Energy consumption is low
 No Magnetic Fields
 Quick Response
 Operates at Cryogenic Temperatures

APPLICATIONS OF PIEZOELECTRIC ACTUATORS

 A piezoelectric actuator is used to adjust different types of equipment like lenses,
machining tools, mirrors, etc.
 These are used in various precision motion control-based applications.
 These actuators are also used to control hydraulic valves which work like a special-
purpose motor or a small-volume pump
 These are used in applications where force or movement is required.
 These are used in different industries like aviation, automotive, consumer electronics,
medical, aerospace due to many benefits.
 Piezo actuators are used in precision knitting machines.
 Piezo actuators are used in mobile phones and video cameras equipped with microphones
due to silent drive characteristics.
 These actuators don’t need lubrication to function, so used in vacuum & cryogenic
environments.

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COMPARISON OF ELECTRO THERMAL, ELECTRO OPTICAL AND

ELECTROCHEMICAL ACTUATORS

PNEUMATIC MUSCLES
The use of pneumatic muscles is more and more common due to the advantages they have. A
pneumatic muscle actuator (PMA) is a flexible tube made of an aramid fiber-reinforced rubber
composite material. The elastomer is a chloroprene rubber and forms a matrix that integrates a
3D mesh of in elastic aramid fibers laid out in a diamond pattern. The working principle of a
pneumatic muscle is correlated to its construction. Depending on the internal pressure applied to
the pneumatic muscle, it increases in diameter and decreases in length. The development of the
pneumatic muscle is correlated to the necessity of obtaining alternatives for actuators, such as a
simple or diaphragm cylinder, especially in the case of large dimensions, which involves higher
weight and difficulties in stroke controlling.

PAMs are very lightweight because their main element is a thin membrane. This allows them to
be directly connected to the structure they power, which is an advantage when considering the
replacement of a defective muscle. If a defective muscle has to be substituted, its location will
always be known and its substitution becomes easier. This is an important characteristic, since

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the membrane is connected to rigid endpoints, which introduces tension concentrations and
therefore possible membrane ruptures.
Another advantage of PAMs is their inherent compliant behaviour: when a force is exerted on
the PAM, it "gives in", without increasing the force in the actuation. This is an important feature
when the PAM is used as an actuator in a robot that interacts with a human, or when delicate
operations have to be carried out.

MICRO-ACTUATORS
• Micro actuator systems which allow motions to be realized with micrometer accuracy.
• A micro actuator as a device of a few micrometers to a few centimetres in size having a
functional principle applicable in the micro world.
• Can be applied in medicine, where implantable, highly accurate micro systems are
needed for the dosing of medication
• For chemical and biotechnological analysis where minute volumes of liquid must be
transported and measured.
• The forces and displacements that can actually be reached for a certain component size
depend on the scaling behaviour, actuator design, and technical limits.
• Micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) is a process technology used to create tiny
integrated devices or systems that combine mechanical and electrical components
`

ELECTROSTATIC PRINCIPLES
Electrostatic actuators make use of Coulomb’s attraction force between oppositely charged
bodies. In the simplest case, two charged plates oriented in parallel are available. Apart from the
force component F z that acts vertically between the plates, lateral-plate offset additionally
causes a force F x acting in the lateral direction.

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MAGNETIC PRINCIPLES
The magnetic principles of force and movement generation can be classified in electro dynamic,
reluctance, and electromagnetic principles. Electro dynamic micro actuators make use of the
Lorentz force on a conductor passed by a current in a magnetic field. So far, such actuators have
hardly been noticed due to their difficult-to-achieve three-dimensional geometry. Contrary to
this, the reluctance principle is the most frequently applied magnetic actuation principle in micro
technology. Micro technical implementation requires an acceptable effort, since only a single
field source and no hard magnetic materials are needed.
FLUIDIC PRINCIPLES
Fluidically driven micro pistons allow high testing forces and large displacements to be reached
in, e.g., micro tensile testing machines. The force-displacement characteristics exhibit a constant
behaviour. The principle of pressure-dependent membrane deflection is applied in a number of
micro valve versions. Other fluidic arrangements are based on fluid dynamics principles or
electro rheological and magneto rheological principles

SHAPE MEMORY EFFECTS

• The term "shape memory" describes the unusual ability to remember shape
• Even after heavy deformation, materials with shape memory are able to recover a
previously memorized shape
• When shape memory alloys (SMAs) are deformed under a certain critical temperature
and then heated up to above this critical temperature, they will "remember" their original
form and assume it again.
When the temperature is raised or lowered, the metallurgical structure of an SMA
transforms from a martensitic state (low temperatures) to the austenitic state (high
temperatures), or vice versa

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CHARACTERISTICS OF MICRO-ACTUATORS
[Link]
• For most linear actuators, stroke or stroke length refers to how far the linear actuator
moves and is equal to the fully extended length minus the fully retracted length.
• Where the fully extended length refers to the total length of the actuator when extended
and fully retracted length refers to the total length of the actuator when retracted.
Stroke sizes for typical Micro Actuators start at 10mm and then increases by approximately
10mm increments up to about 100mm

[Link]/TORQUE
• Actuator torque is a numerical expression of the amount of torque that an actuator is
capable of generating.
• Torque is a term used to define the extent to which a motive energy twists an object
around its own axis or a point.
• The straight line motion experienced when something is pushed is a practical display of
force.
• Torque, on the other hand, is best described as the result of the use of force to a wrench,
which turns a bolt around its axis.

[Link]
• The stiffness of the actuator is the ratio of blocking force to free stroke.
• A spring (load) with low stiffness provides very little “blocking” for the piezo to work
against in order to generate a force.

[Link] ENERGY
• For an actuator to work, it requires an energy source input, usually electrical energy. It
also requires an external signal input in some form to tell the actuator what to do, and
then the device Actuates

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[Link]
The actuator efficiency is a factor transferring motor torque produced by an electric motor into
actuator torque, necessary in rotating actuator inner gears.

[Link]
Perfect linearity would allow output versus input to be plotted as a straight line on a graph paper.
Linearity is a measure of the constancy of the ratio of output to input. In the form of an equation,
it is
y = mx
where x is input and y is output, and m is a constant. If m is a variable, the relationship is not
linear. For example, m may be a function of x, such as m = a + bx where the value of b would
introduce a nonlinearity. A measure of the nonlinearity could be given as the value of b.

[Link]
It is defined as the change in the input/ output curve when the direction of motion [Link] is a
lag between the change in voltage and change in displacement, causing the actuator to follow
different paths of expansion and contraction as voltage is applied and removed.
Hysteresis is the relationship between the reaction of a material to an initial load (or magnetizing
force) and the material’s recovery once the load (or magnetizing force) is removed.

[Link] TIME
Response time is the time required for a actuator to respond completely to a change in input.
The response time of a system with sensors is the combination of the responses of all individual
components, including the sensor. An important aspect in selecting an appropriate sensor is to
match its time response to that of the complete system

[Link]
Drift refer to thermal drift of temperature drift, which is a change in position of the actuator due
to a change in temperature. It is used to describe a phenomenon that happens when the applied
voltage is removed.

[Link]
It determines the maximum speed or frequency at which a instrument associated with a actuator
or otherwise is capable of operating. High bandwidth implies faster speed of response.
Instrument bandwidth should be several times greater than the maximum frequency of interest in
the input signals.

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