HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?

The production of new organisms from the existing organisms of the same species is known as REPRODUCTION.
a) It is essential for the survival of species on earth.
b) This process ensures continuity of life on earth.
c) It gives rise to more organisms with the same basic-characteristics as their parents.
d) It plays an important role in evolution by transmitting favourable variations of the organism from one generation to the
next.
Thus, reproduction is the most basic level of producing copies of the blue print of body design.
IMPORTANCE OF DNA
Q. What is the importance of DNA copying in reproduction?
Ans. 1. The chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell contain information for inheritance of features from parents to next
generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecule.
2. The DNA in the cell nucleus is the information source for making proteins.
3. If the information is changed, different proteins will be made. Different proteins will eventually lead to altered body
designs. Thus, basic event in reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy, by the process of mitosis to get the blue print of the
body-design.
Q. What is the basic event in Reproduction?
Ans. The basic event in reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy, by the process of mitosis to get the blue print of the body
design. The consistency of DNA copying during reproduction is important for the maintenance of body design features that
allow the organism to use that particular niche.

Q. How the process of DNA replication or copying is carried out? What is its importance in evolution?
Ans. 1. Cells use chemical reactions to build copies of their DNA. During this process, two copies of the DNA are created in a
reproducing cell & they will need to be separated from each other. (If any copy is pushed out of cell then it will not have
any organized cellular structure for maintaining life processes)
2. DNA copying is accompanied with a cellular apparatus. The DNA copies separate, each with its own cellular apparatus .
3. Thus, a cell divides to give rise to two cells. Although, these two cells are similar, but, it depends on how-accurately the
copying reactions have occur.
4. Therefore, the process of copying the DNA will have some variations each time. As a result, the DNA copies generated will
be similar, but may not be identical to the original.
5. Some of these variations might be so drastic that the new DNA copy cannot work with the cellular apparatus it inherits.
Such a new born cell will simply die.
6. However, there could still be many other variations in the DNA copies that would not lead to such -a drastic outcome.
7. The surviving cells are similar to, but marginally different from each other. This in-built tendency for variation during
reproduction is the basis for evolution which is either due to errors in DNA copying or sexual reproduction.

Q. What is the basic essence of evolution?

Ans. it is due to variation which is caused due to errors in DNA copying during sexual reproduction( or it is due to variation
which create new species which is caused due to errors in DNA copying during sexual reproduction) Thus, DNA is important
in carrying characteristics of parents to offspring, although some variation is there.
IMPORTANCE OF VARIATIONS

Q1. Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessary for the individual?
Ans. Variations allow organisms to exist in diverse habitats or niches. In the absence of variation a species may be restricted
to a particular area. If this area gets drastically altered, due to various natural or man-made causes, the species may be
wiped out. However, if some variations were present in a few individuals, which are tolerant to excessive heat or cold or can
survive in shortage of water, these could colonize other habitats and survive. Thus, variations are useful for the survival of
species and not for the individual. Hence, variation provides Stability to the population of various species by preventing
them from getting wiped off. Example: - If there is a population of certain bacteria living in temperate water (which is neither
very hot nor very cold) and the temperature of water increases too much due to global warming, then most of these bacteria
will not be able to tolerate excessive heat and hence die. But some bacteria which had variations to resist heat would survive
and grow further.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION (BY A SINGLE PARENT)
Asexual reproduction takes place in unicellular organisms, some plants & some multi-cellular animals like sponges and
hydra. Asexual reproduction is characterized by the following features:
• Only one parent is involved, two sexes are not required.
• New individuals are genetically identical to the parents, since they arise from on1y one parent, thus, no variations are
introduced in the new organisms.
• There is no organic evolution.
• There are more chances that the genetic diseases get transferred to progeny.
Advantages:
• It is simple and fast.
• Genetic characteristics can be restored.
• It is useful in cases where organisms produce sterile (infertile) gametes.
Disadvantages:
• Asexual reproduction produces identical organisms' generation after generation. New Organisms will inherit any defects of
their parent.
• Evolutionary, change is not possible as no variations are produced. A species, as a result, cannot adapt to changes in its
environment.
Methods of asexual reproduction:
In this method certain body cells undergo repeated mitotic divisions and give rise -to two or more new organisms of the
same kind.
The different methods are:- Fission (binary & multiple), Budding, Fragmentation, Regeneration, Vegetative propagation,
Spore Formation
FISSION
Many single-celled organisms like protozoa and bacteria just split or break into two identical halves during cell division,
leading to the creation of new organisms. This process is called FISSION. Fission is of two types, binary and multiple fission.
• Binary Fission- it is an asexual method of reproduction of organisms. The parent organism splits to form two new
organisms. Examples are:- AMOEBA
a) When amoeba cell reaches its maximum size of growth, then the nucleus lengthens and then it splits into two parts.
b) Then the cytoplasm of amoeba divides into two parts, one part around each nucleus.
c) Thus, one parent amoeba divides to form two smaller amoebae (called daughter amoebae).
d) The splitting of the parent cell during fission can take place in ANY PLAIN. (because the shape of the body is not fixed)

LEISHMANIA
It's a unicellular animal. It's a parasite which causes the disease KALA AZAR. It has a greater degree of organization in its
body, having a whip-like structure. In Leishmania, the splitting of the parent cell during fission takes place in a DEFINITE
PLAIN.
Q. How is binary fission in amoeba different from leishmania?
Ans. Although both are unicellular, binary fission in amoeba is different from leishmania:
Amoeba Leishmania
1. Has no fixed shape of the body 1. It has a greater degree of organization in its body,
Parent organism splits into two daughter cells. having a whip like structure
2. Splitting takes place in any plane. 2. Splitting takes place in definitive plane.
Multiple Fission
In this case, the parent organism splits to form many new organisms at the same time. This happens as follows:
a) Sometimes (particularly during unfavourable conditions), a cyst or protective wall is formed around the cell of a Single-
celled organism like that of Malarial Parasite Plasmodium.
b) Inside the cyst, the nucleus of cell splits several times to form many smaller nuclei called daughter nuclei.
c) During favourable conditions, the Cyst breaks and many daughter cells present in it are released, each forming a new
organism.
BUDDING
It is an asexual method of reproduction. In budding, a small part of the body of the parent organism grows out as a 'bud'
which then detaches & becomes a new organism. Examples are:-
HYDRA (multi-cellular animals) — it uses regenerative cells for reproduction.
a) At first, a small outgrowth called 'bud' is formed on the side of the body of hydra, by the repeated mitotic divisions of its
cells at one specific site.
b) This bud then grows gradually to form a small hydra by developing a mouth and tentacles.
c) Finally, the tiny new hydra detaches itself from body of parent hydra and lives as a separate organism.

YEAST (unicellular. non-green plant) -budding

a) Initially, a bud appears on the outside of the cell wall.
b) Slowly and gradually, nucleus of the parent yeast cell then divides into two parts and one part of the nucleus moves into
the bud.
c) The bud separates off from the parent yeast cell and forms a new yeast cell.
In yeast, the budding takes place so fast that the first buds start forming their own buds and all of them remain attached to
parent yeast cell forming a chain of yeast cells. After sometime, all the yeast cells of the chain separate from one another and
form individual yeast plants.
Q. What happens when a pinch of yeast granules is aided to a sugar solution in a test tube and kept in a warm place with
cotton plug on it?
Ans. (hint) it will show anaerobic respiration and reproduce, through budding Ethanol will be formed, CO 2 will be released

REGENERATION AND FRAGMENTATION

Q. What is the basic difference between regeneration and fragmentation?
Ans. Fragmentation- It is the only method of reproduction in some organism like Spirogyra (multicellular).
Here the body breaks up into small pieces of fragments on maturation to form new individuals. Example: filamentous
organism, spirogyra (green algae). Here the cells are randomly placed so cell by cell division takes place easily as there are no
specialized cells.
Regeneration- In a fully differentiated body, the ability to give rise to a new individual from their body parts is called
regeneration.
It is not the method of reproduction because most of the organisms do not depend on being cut to reproduce.
For example: In hydra and Plannaria, in fully differentiated body, new individual is obtained from the pieces of growth and
development i.e.
i) It is carried out by specialized cells. (Regenerative cells)
ii) These cells proliferate to form a mass of cells.
iii) From this mass of cells, various cells undergo changes to form different cell types and tissues.
Thus, organisms which have relatively simple body organization with very few specialized cells undergo regeneration.
Q. Like spirogyra, why don't all multicellular organisms show fragmentation?
Or
Q. Regeneration in complex advanced organisms is very limited. Why?
Ans. In some multicellular organisms, the cells lire not arranged randomly rather there are organized cells specialized into
tissues and organs placed at definite positions of the body. Thus in such multicellular organization due to highly specialized
organization, cell by cell division is impractical. Thus in such case more complex ways of reproduction are used, as different
cell types perform different specialized functions. Example: humans and higher vertebrae animals.
Q. How is reproduction achieved from a single cell type even if the organism is made up of many cell types?
Ans. It is possible only if a single cell type in the organism is capable of growing, proliferating i.e... Increase in number by
reproducing and thus making other cell types under favourable circumstances.
Q. Healing of a wound on skin and growing back of a lizard's tail is an example of regeneration.
NOTE: - regeneration in complex advanced organisms like mammals is very limited. They cannot regenerate whole parts - like
an arm or leg. In such organism’s regeneration of hair, nails, skin and certain other tissues can take place.

VEGETATIVE PROPOGATION
This is an asexual method of reproduction in plants where vegetative parts such as the root, stem or leaf give rise to new
plants. In such a process reproductive organs are not required, and, therefore, no seeds are produced. It may occur through:
a) Natural mean b) Artificial means
Natural Means
a) Natural vegetation propagation by stem - plants like potato, ginger, sugarcane, turmeric & onion multiply by this method.
b) Natural vegetation propagation by leaves- plants like Bryophyllum can propagate through the buds produced in the
notches along the margin of the leaf. These plantlets, on being detached, fall on the soil and develop into independent
plants.

c) Natural vegetative propagation by roots - in sweet potato, dahlia or asparagus, the swollen roots are present. New plants
arise from these swollen roots buried in the soil.
d) Money plant can also be grown by vegetative propagation by using a piece of its stem.
• The piece of stem is cut in such a manner that it contains at least one leaf on it.
• One of the ends of this stem is dipped in water.
• After a few days it's seen that new roots appear at the point where leaf was attached.
• The piece of stem gradually grows into a new money plant.

e) Vegetative propagation of plants by using tubers which are the modified, underground stem. A tuber is the thickened,
underground stern of a plant which is swollen with stored food. The tuber has a number of 'buds' - (notches). Each bud of
the tuber grows into a new plant. For example potato.
NOTE: - artificial vegetative propagation is usually used for the propagation of those plants which reproduce either very few
seeds or do not produce viable seeds. Examples are banana, pineapple, orange, rose, grape, etc.
NOTE: - Grafting, in rose, sugarcane and grapes and layering of strawberries are methods of vegetative propagation.
Advantages of Vegetative Propagation
a) The plants that cannot produce viable seeds such as banana, seedless grapes, oranges, rose, jasmine, etc. can be easily
grown by vegetative propagation.
b) As the plants grown from the seeds may show variations, but to get genetically identical copies so as to preserve selected
varieties, vegetative propagation is the only means.
c) It is an easier, less expensive and a rapid method of propagation.
d) Plants raised by this method can bear flowers, and fruits much earlier than those produced from seeds.
SPORE FORMATION (sporulation)
Unicellular – bacteria, Multicellular- non- flowering plants like fungi
a) In fungi, during spore formation, a tiny blob structure called sporangium develops from the hyphae. (Sporangium is the
part involved in reproduction)
b) The nucleus in the sporangium divides repeatedly.
c) Each nucleus gets surrounded by a small portion of cytoplasm, and a spore is formed.
d) Spore are small in size and their walls are thick. The walls help the spores to survive in adverse conditions, like high
temperature, lack of food, scarcity of water etc. Since they are large in number it gives benefit to organism which reproduce
through spore formation.
e) The spores give rise to new organisms under favourable conditions such as damp and warm conditions and moist surface.
f) If we keep a moist slice of bread aside for few days, then the spores of bread mould plant present in air settle on the moist
bread and germinate to form new fungus plants.

Q. How does an organism benefit if it reproduces through spores?

Ans. (point d and e)
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Sexual reproduction is the most common method of reproduction in flowering plants. Seeds are produced as a result of
sexual reproduction. In angiosperms or flowering plants, flower is the reproductive part of a plant. Most flowers have both
male and female reproductive organs in them. The flower may be unisexual (papaya, watermelon) when it contains either
stamens or carpels or bisexual (hibiscus, mustard) when it contains both stamens and carpels.
The flower generally bears:-
• Sepals - the outermost part of the flowers, which are usually green and protect the flower.
• Petals - are coloured and showy. In addition to protecting the reproductive parts, they also attract insects for the purpose
of pollination.
• Stamen - it is the Male reproductive of the flower. Each stamen has an upper Part called anther and a slender stalk called
filament. Each ANTHER possesses numerous pollen grains. Pollen grains are yellowish in colour. Each Pollen grain contains
male germ cells in pollen sacs.
• Carpel - it's the innermost part of flower which lies in the centre. Its female reproductive part called pistil consists of three
parts: a) an upper sticky, flat part STIGMA, b) a long, cylindrical part STYLE, c) a lower, swollen part OVARY
The stigma receives pollen grains during pollination. The ovary contains ovules. Each ovule has an egg cell.
POLLINATION
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther (male part of the flower) to the stigma (female part of the flower).
There are 2 types of pollination: • self-pollination, • cross pollination
Self-Pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower, or to the stigma of another
flower of the same plant is known as self-pollination.
Advantages: -
a) It preserves the parental characters indefinitely because the gametes of the same flower or flowers of the same plant are
involved.
b) Small quantity of pollen is sufficient, thus, it is economical.
c) The flowers need not to produce nectar and scent, and they need not to be showy.
d) No external agents are required for the transfer.
Cross Pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from anther of a flower of one plant to the stigma of a flower of another plant
of the same species is called cross pollination.
Advantages:-
a) The seeds produced are viable and healthier and have germinating capacity.
b) Seeds produce healthier Offspring.
c) Cross pollination is a source of variation in offspring because of intermixing of genetic make-up of two plants.
Agents of pollination: a) biotic — birds, insects, human, b) abiotic — soil, water, wind

Self-Pollination Cross-Pollination
1. Occurs within a flower or between two flowers of the 1. Occurs between two flowers of two different plants of
same plant. the same species.
2. No external agent of pollination required. 2. External agents such as wind, water, insects and birds are
required.
3. Produced in small numbers, thus, no wastage of pollen 3. Produced in large numbers. (Usually), thus, wastage of
grains occurs. pollen grains occurs.
4. Flowers are not attractive (usually). 4. Flowers are attractive with coloured petals.
5. Flowers do not (usually) produce scent or nectar. 5. Flowers generally produce scent and nectar.
6. Offspring produced have genetic make-up identical to the 6. Offspring produced may differ in, genetic make-up, and
parent plant purity of race maintained, no variation occurs. variations occur.

FERTILIZATION IN PLANTS
After the pollen grains deposit on the sticky stigma, one of the pollen grains produces pollen tube which moves down along
the style into the ovary due to chemotropism. The pollen tube carries male gametes which enter into the ovule and embryo
sac. The male gamete fuses with the germ cell that is egg of the female to form zygote. This is called SYNGAMY.
The changes that take place in a plant after fertilization are:-
a) The zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule.
b) The embryo grows into a new plant,
c) The ovule develops a thick coat and gets converted into seed. The seed contains the future plant.
d) The ovary grows rapidly and ripens into fruit.
After fertilization sepals, petals, stamens, style, etc. usually fall off.
Q. What is the difference between pollination and fertilization?
Ans. Pollination is the process by which the pollen grains from the anther of one flower get deposited on the stigma of the
same or another flower.
Fertilization is the process in which the male and female gametes combine to form a zygote.
Q. What is germination?
Ans. the process of formation of new plant (embryo) from the seed under appropriate conditions is called germination.
Q. What is the difference between reproduction in unicellular and multicellular organisms?
Ans.
Reproduction hi unicellular Reproduction in multicellular
1. The only mode of reproduction is asexual. 1. The mode of reproduction can be either sexual or
asexual.
2. No specialized part is used in reproduction. 2. Specialised cells and tissues are used in reproduction.
3. There is no DNA copying. 3. DNA copying occurs due to which they can survive in
changed climatic conditions.
Example: Binary fission, Multiple fission Example: Regeneration, Vegetative propagation
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS
Function of DNA in sexual reproduction
a) Every body cell of human being, that is somatic cell, has 23 pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus.
b) During the formation of gametes, that is germ cells, ovum in females and sperm in males, these 23 pairs of chromosomes
undergo meiotic cell division to produce half the number of chromosomes i.e.23.
c) The genetic material DNA of the male and female germ cell combine together to form a new cell zygote.
d) These 23 chromosomes are from the paternal side and 23 from maternal side, thus DNA in zygote does not get doubled.
e) Hence, two different individuals have different patterns of accumulated variations in DNA which give rise to a new
individual.
Q. How does reproduction help in providing stability to population of species?
Ans. The phenomenon of consistent copying of DNA in sexual reproduction from the parent to the offspring is very important
for the maintenance of body features i.e.. Through gametes the transfer of unpaired chromosomes to the progeny. This
allows the organism to live in an environment (niche). All living organisms maintain their race by this process to ensure
continuity of life on earth.
NOTE: - As in human beings the body design is complex, the germ cells or the gametes are highly specialized. Sperm of the
male is motile and small whereas the ovum of the female is large and contains food store. (Q. How are the 2 germ cells
different inhuman beings?)

Advantages of sexual reproduction

a) Offspring’s produced although are similar to parents, but not identical to them or to one another, as offspring’s receive
genes from the maternal as well as the paternal side. Thus, there is genetic variation. This leads to variety in population.
b) Due to genetic variations, these offspring’s can adapt to drastic changes in the environment.
c) Sexual reproduction promotes diversity of characters in the offspring. This leads to origin of new species.
d) Genetic variations due to sexual reproduction lead to evolution of better adapted species.
Puberty
The age at which the various changes take place in the body of boys and girls to become sexually mature is called puberty. At
this age the reproductive system becomes functional.
Boys — generally starts at the age of 13-14 yrs. Girls — generally starts at the age of 10-12 yrs.
a) Voice deepens and cracks a) Breast size increases
b) Penis becomes enlarge and erect b) Mensuration begins
c) Hair growth around genitals c) Hair growth around genitals
d) Hair growth in armpits d) Hair growth in armpits
Male reproductive system
It consists of the following parts:-
a) Testes b) Scrotum c) Vas deferens d) Seminal vesicles e) Prostate gland f) Penis
Testes — are the primary reproductive organs. They are two testes which are oval in shape and lie outside the abdominal
cavity. Its functions are:-
a) To produce male sex cells (gametes) called sperms.
b) To produce hormone called testosterone which takes care of secondary sexual characters during puberty.
Scrotum — testes lie in muscular sac called scrotum which is outside the abdominal cavity. The reason is the sperm
formation requires lower (optimum) temperature than the normal body temperature. The temperature of scrotum is about
3° Celsius lower than the temperature inside the body.
Vas deferens — this is the tube which carries sperm and joins with another tube called urethra which arises from the urinary
bladder. Urethra along with vas deferens forms a muscular organ called penis which is the copulatory organ. Thus, in males
there is a common genital opening for sperms and urine.
Seminal vesicles & prostate gland — along the path of vas deferens, these glands add their secretions to sperm so that the
sperms are in liquid form called semen. This makes the transport of sperms easier and also the secretion of these two glands
provide nutrition to the sperm.
Sperm — these are tiny bodies which carry genetic material. It also has a long tail that helps the sperm to move toward the
female germ cell or gamete called ova.
(Seminal vesicle & prostate glands are called accessory glands)

Female Reproductive System

It consists of the following organs:-
a) A pair of ovaries b) Fallopian tubes or oviducts c) Uterus or womb d) Cervix e) Vagina
Ovaries — these are the Primary reproductive, organs in a female. Its function is to produce the female sex cells or germ cells
called ova or eggs. At the same time it also secretes female sex hormones oestrogen. Ovaries are oval shaped and are inside
the abdominal cavity near the kidneys. Ovaries contain thousands of immature eggs at the time of birth. On reaching
puberty, some of these eggs start maturing. One egg is produced by one ovary every month.
Fallopian tube — just above the ovaries are tubes called oviducts or fallopian tube which unite to form a muscular elastic
bag like structure called uterus or womb. Fallopian tube is the site of fertilization. It carries the fertilized egg to the uterus.
Uterus — it's a muscular bag, which is formed when the oviducts unite. It is here, that the embryo develops for nine months
and gets nourishment during pregnancy. The lower tip of this uterus called cervix.
Vagina — it's also called birth canal. It’s a large muscular tube arising from uterus. It receives sperms from the male during
copulation.
In females, urinary openings and vaginal openings are separate.
Ovulation — how does uterus prepare itself every month to receive and nurture the baby?
Ovulation is the process in which an ovum is released by the ovary into the fallopian tube for fertilization. During this
process, the inner lining of the uterus gets thickened so that it’s strong enough to keep the fertilized egg for nine months and
gets richly supplied with blood to nourish the growing embryo.
Fertilization
a) During copulation, the sperms are released in the vaginal passage.
b) These sperms'. Are active but only one Sperm fuses with the ovum in the fallopian tube to form zygote. This is called
fertilization.
c) The fertilized egg, zygote, gets implanted (implantation) in the lining of the uterus and starts dividing.
d) During implantation, a disc like special tissue develops between the uterus wall and the embryo (foetus) called placenta.
It's through placenta that the embryo carries out the process of nutrition, respiration and excretion. The placenta contains
villi on the embryo side of the tissues whereas on the mother's side there are blood spaces which surround the villi. This
provides large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to the embryo. The waste substances generated
by the embryo are removed by transferring into mothers' blood.
e) The time period from the fertilization up to the birth of the baby inside the mother's uterus is called gestation which is
about nine months.
f) The embryo becomes a baby. The child is born as a result of rhythmic contraction of uterus muscles due to which the child
is pushed out through vagina.
Menstruation Cycle (when egg is not fertilized)
During the formation of egg in the ovaries, the inner lining of the uterus becomes thick and spongy along with blood
capillaries in it to nurture the embryo. This is because in case the ovum gets fertilized by the sperm then the uterus is strong
enough to keep this fertilized egg for nine months till it grows into a baby to provide nourishment.
In case the fertilization does not take place, the egg lives for about I day and then this thick and spongy lining of the uterus is
not required. Thus, slowly this lining breaks down and comes out through vagina along with blood, unfertilized egg and
mucous. This vaginal bleeding is called menstrual flow or menstruation which lasts for 3-5 days. It takes place in a period of
28 days.
Situation when ovulation and menstruation stops are called menopause.
Q. Why does the body show sexual maturation at puberty?
Ans. When a baby begins to grow, the different parts of the body such as arms, legs, chest etc, grow at different rates. Till
about 12 years of age, body enlarges and overall physical and mental development takes place. At this stage, the
reproductive, organs develop at a slower rate. Suddenly, above the age of 12, the body enlargement slows down and
reproductive tissues begin to mature due to the fact that the resources of the body get mainly directed in achieving the
sexual growth. This period of adolescence is called puberty.
For eg. Female baby is born with 1000's of immature eggs in the ovary, which mature only at the age of puberty.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
The diseases which are spread by sexual contact with an infected person are called sexually transmitted diseases or STD.
Some of the common sexually transmitted diseases are:-
Gonorrhoea, Syphilis these are both caused by bacteria. The bacteria which cause these diseases spread through sexual
contact with an infected person.
AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) AIDS disease is caused by a virus called HIV--(Human Immunodeficiency
Virus). AIDS damages the body's immune system so that the body becomes weak and cannot protect itself against infection.
Warts is also a viral infection.
Population control
The increasing population has put great strain on the available resources. The only solution is POPULATION CONTROL. This
means the introduction of birth control methods.
Methods of birth control — family planning
A number of contraceptive methods have been developed to prevent and regulate the child birth.
a) Mechanical barrier method - condoms used by male on penis and diaphragms & cervical caps used in vagina by females
are devices that prevent the entry of sperm in the female vaginal tract.
b) Chemical method- the drugs and pills are used by females. Oral pills used by women contain hormones which alter the
ovulatory cycle. These are celled oral contraceptives, OC’s. Since they cause hormonal imbalances it can cause Side effects.
c) Intra uterine contraceptive device- example loop or copper-T introduced into the uterus of the female to prevent
implantation. This can cause irritation in the uterus.
d) Surgical methods — MALES --- a small portion of vas deferens is removed by surgery and both the ends are ligated (tied)
properly. This prevents the sperm from coming out.
FEMALES ------ a small portion of oviduct is removed by surgery and the cut ends are ligated. This prevents the ovum
entering into the fallopian tube.
Surgery can cause infections and other problems if not performed properly. The termination of pregnancy can-also be done
by surgical operations, which can be misused at times to avoid female child (Female foeticide)
Q. Give two was by which hydra can reproduce.
Ans. regeneration and budding
Q. What are the reasons for adopting contraceptive methods?
Ans. a) control populations
b) Prevent sexually transmitted diseases
c) To take care of women’s health so that there is no frequent pregnancy
Q. What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction?
Ans. a) in sexual reproduction, since there are 2 individuals involved, the recombinants of genetic material DNA causes more
variations which have better adaptability and survival advantage.
b) Sexual reproduction leads to organic evolution
c) In sexual mode of reproduction there are less chances of transfer of genetic diseases from parents to progeny.
Q. Where does fertilization take place in females?
Ans. Fallopian tube
Q. What is menarch and menopause?
Ans. Menarch- Beginning of menstrual cycle.
Menopause- Ending of menstrual cycle.