Chapter 1 Semiconductor Devices

Se m i c o n d u c t o r de v i c e s a r e th e fo u n d a t i o n of va r i o u s e l e c t r o n i c c i r c u i t s . T h i s c h a p t e r fi r s t
in t r o d u c e s th e ba s i c kn o w l e d g e of se m i c o n d u c t o r s , in c l u d i n g th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of se m i c o n d u c t o r
m a t e r i a l s , th e m o t i o n of c h a r g e c a r r i e r s in se m i c o n d u c t o r s , a n d e l u c i d a t i n g th e un i d i r e c t i o n a l
conductivity of PN junctions; Then introduce the structure, working principle, characteristic curves,
a n d m a i n pa r a m e t e r s of se m i c o n d u c t o r di o d e s , vo l t a g e re g u l a t o r s , bi p o l a r tr a n s i s t o r s , a n d fi e l d -
e f f e c t tr a n s i s t o r s .

1.1 Semiconductor Fundamentals

T h e su b s t a n c e s in na t u r e c a n be di v i d e d in t o th r e e c a t e g o r i e s ba s e d on th e i r c o n d u c t i v i t y :
c o n d u c t o r s , se m i c o n d u c t o r s , a n d in s u l a t o r s . T h e c o n d u c t i v i t y of a su b s t a n c e is de t e r m i n e d by it s
a t o m i c st r u c t u r e . C o n d u c t o r s a r e ge n e r a l l y lo w va l e n c e e l e m e n t s , su c h a s si l v e r , c o p p e r , a n d
a l u m i n u m , w h i c h a r e go o d c o n d u c t o r s . T h e i r ou t e r m o s t e l e c t r o n s a r e e a s i l y fr e e d fr o m th e a t o m i c
nu c l e u s a n d be c o m e fr e e e l e c t r o n s . U n d e r th e a c t i o n of a n e x t e r n a l e l e c t r i c fi e l d , th e y pr o d u c e
di r e c t i o n a l m o v e m e n t , fo r m i n g a n e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t . H i g h va l e n c e e l e m e n t s (s u c h a s in e r t ga s e s ) or
po l y m e r m a t e r i a l s (s u c h a s ru b b e r ) , w h o s e ou t e r m o s t e l e c t r o n s a r e e x t r e m e l y di f f i c u l t to br e a k fr e e
fr o m th e a t o m i c nu c l e u s a n d be c o m e fr e e e l e c t r o n s , ha v e e x t r e m e l y po o r c o n d u c t i v i t y a n d a r e c a l l e d
in s u l a t o r s . T h e c o m m o n l y us e d se m i c o n d u c t o r m a t e r i a l s a r e si l i c o n (S i ) a n d ge r m a n i u m (G e ) . T h e
ge r m a n i u m a t o m ha s a to t a l of 32 e l e c t r o n s ro t a t i n g a r o u n d th e nu c l e u s , a n d th e r e a r e 4 e l e c t r o n s on
th e ou t e r m o s t or b i t a l , a s sh o w n in Fi g u r e 1- 1 - 1 (a ) . T h e e l e c t r o n s on th e ou t e r m o s t or b i t a l of th e
a t o m a r e us u a l l y re f e r r e d to a s va l e n c e e l e c t r o n s , so si l i c o n a n d ge r m a n i u m a r e bo t h 4- v a l e n t
e l e m e n t s . T h e a t o m i c st r u c t u r e of si l i c o n is sh o w n in Fi g u r e 1- 1 - 1 (b ) . Fo r c o n v e n i e n c e , a n a t o m of
a 4- v a l e n t e l e m e n t is of t e n re p r e s e n t e d by a po s i t i v e io n w i t h a + 4 c h a r g e a n d fo u r su r r o u n d i n g
va l e n c e e l e c t r o n s , a s sh o w n in Fi g u r e 1- 1 - 1 (c ) . T h e ou t e r m o s t e l e c t r o n s of si l i c o n a n d ge r m a n i u m
a r e ne i t h e r a s e a s i l y fr e e d fr o m th e a t o m i c nu c l e u s a s c o n d u c t o r s , no r a s ti g h t l y bo u n d by th e
a t o m i c nu c l e u s a s in s u l a t o r s , so th e i r c o n d u c t i v i t y li e s be t w e e n c o n d u c t o r s a n d in s u l a t o r s .

(a) Ge (b)Si (c)simplified model

Figure 1-1-1 Atomic Structure of Germanium and Silicon

1. 1 . 1 In t r i ns i c se m i c o n d u c t or
A single crystal made from a pure conductor through a certain process is called an intrinsic
semiconductor.
 1. The crystal structure of intrinsic semiconductors

In the crystal of silicon (or germanium), atoms form a regular crystal lattice in space, where each
silicon (or germanium) atom is located at the center of a regular tetrahedron, while the other four atoms
are located at the vertices of the regular tetrahedron, as shown in Figures 1-1-2. The outermost valence
electron of each atom is not only bound by its own nucleus, but also attracted by adjacent nuclei.
Therefore, valence electrons not only move around their own atomic nuclei, but also appear in the orbitals
of adjacent atomic nuclei. So, two adjacent atoms share a pair of valence electrons, forming a covalent
bond structure in the crystal, as shown in Figure 1-1-3, which is a schematic diagram of the covalent bond
structure in silicon crystals.

Figure 1-1-3 Schematic diagram of covalent bond structure

Figure 1-1-2 The arrangement of atoms in crystals plan
 [Link] types of charge carriers in intrinsic semiconductors

For intrinsic semiconductors, due to the strong binding force of covalent bonds in the crystal, the energy
of electrons in the covalent bonds is not sufficient to break free from the bonds at zero thermodynamic
temperature (i.e. T=OK, equivalent to T=-273 ℃), and therefore, the crystal has no free electrons. So, at T=0K,
semiconductors cannot conduct electricity, just like insulators. If the temperature gradually increases, for
example at room temperature, a small number of valence electrons will gain enough energy to overcome the
binding of covalent bonds and become free electrons. At this point, intrinsic semiconductors have a certain
degree of conductivity, but due to the small number of free electrons, their conductivity is relatively weak.
Meanwhile, a vacancy is left in the original covalent bond, which is called a hole, as shown in Figures 1-1-4.

Figure 1-1-4 Holes and Free Electrons

A hole can attract valence electrons from nearby covalent bonds to fill the hole, and the hole
appearing in the nearby covalent bond that has lost valence electrons can attract neighboring valence
electrons to fill it, resulting in the emergence of another hole. In terms of effect, the filling motion of this
electron is equivalent to the movement of positively charged holes. To distinguish it from the motion of
free electrons, it is called hole motion. It can be seen that there are two types of charged particles in
semiconductors, namely charge carriers: negatively charged free electrons and positively charged holes.
In intrinsic semiconductors, free electrons and holes are always generated in pairs, forming electron hole
pairs. Therefore, the concentration of the two charge carriers is equal. When free electrons fill holes, it is
called recombination, causing the electron hole pair to disappear. At a certain temperature, the generation
and recombination of the aforementioned electron hole pairs reach equilibrium, resulting in a constant
concentration of electron hole pairs. It should be pointed out that the conductivity of intrinsic
semiconductors is poor and closely related to environmental temperature. As the temperature increases,
the concentration of charge carriers increases exponentially. The sensitivity of semiconductor material
properties to temperature, which can be used to make photosensitive and thermosensitive devices, is also
the reason for poor temperature stability of semiconductor devices.

1.1.2 Impurity semiconductors

Although there are two types of carriers in intrinsic semiconductors, the overall conductivity is poor due to
the low concentration of intrinsic carriers. If a specific impurity element is added to the intrinsic semiconductor
and the concentration of the impurity element is controlled, the conductivity of the impurity semiconductor can
be controlled.
1.N-type semiconductor
If a small amount of 5-valent impurity elements, such as phosphorus, antimony, etc., are added to pure
silicon (or germanium) crystals, some silicon atoms in the original lattice will be replaced by impurity atoms,
forming N-type semiconductors. Due to the fact that the impurity atom has 5 valence electrons on its
outermost layer, when it forms a covalent bond with the surrounding 4 silicon atoms, an additional electron is
added. This electron is not bound by covalent bonds and is only attracted by its own atomic nucleus, which
has a relatively weak binding force. Therefore, the electron can become a free electron at room temperature,
while the impurity atom becomes an immovable cation, as shown in Figures 1-1-5. In N-type semiconductors,
the concentration of free electrons will be much higher than the concentration of holes, so free electrons are
called majority carriers (referred to as multi carriers), and the holes inside are called minority carriers
(referred to as minority carriers). Because impurity atoms can provide electrons, they are called donor atoms.
N-type semiconductors mainly rely on free electron conduction. The more impurity elements are added, the
higher the concentration of free electrons and the stronger the conductivity.
2.P-type semiconductor
If a small amount of trivalent impurity elements such as boron, gallium, etc. are added to pure silicon (or
germanium) crystals, some silicon atoms in the original lattice will be replaced by impurity atoms, forming a P-
type semiconductor. Due to the presence of three valence electrons on the outermost layer of an impurity atom, a
"hole" is formed when it forms a covalent bond with four surrounding silicon atoms. When the electrons on the
outer layer of the silicon atom fill this hole due to thermal motion, the impurity atom becomes an immovable
negative ion, and a hole is generated in the covalent bond of the silicon atom, as shown in Figures 1-1-6. In P-
type semiconductors, the concentration of holes will be much higher than the concentration of free electrons,
therefore, holes are multi carriers, and the free electrons in them are minority carriers. Due to the holes in
impurity atoms attracting electrons, they are called acceptor atoms. P-type semiconductors mainly rely on hole
conductivity. The more impurity elements are added, the higher the concentration of holes and the stronger the
conductivity

Figure 1-1-5 Crystal Structure of N-type Semiconductors Figure 1-1-6 Crystal Structure of P-type Semiconductors

In impurity semiconductors, the concentration of multions mainly depends on the concentration of

impurities doped; The concentration of minority carriers mainly depends on temperature changes. For impurity
semiconductors, whether they are N-type or P-type semiconductors, overall, they still maintain electrical
neutrality. For convenience, in the future, only the positive ions and an equal amount of free electrons will be
drawn to represent N-type semiconductors; Similarly, only negative ions and an equal number of holes are
drawn to represent P-type semiconductors, as shown in Figures 1-1-7 (a) and (b), respectively.

(a) n type semiconductor (b) p type semiconductor

Simplified representation of impurity semiconductors in Figures 1-1-7

In sho rt, afte r doping im purity elem ents into pure se miconductors, the conduc tivity will be grea tly
improved. For exam ple, by adding one millionth of the triva lent im purity boron to 4-va lent silic on, the
elec tric al re sistivity at room te mperature will dec rea se to one 500000 time s tha t of intrinsic
se miconducto rs, indic ating a significa nt im prove me nt in conduc tivity. Of course, simply im proving the
conduc tivity of se miconductors is not the ultim ate goal, as conduc tors ha ve stronge r conduc tivity. The
won de r of im purity se mico nductors lies in the fa ct that intrinsic se miconductors dope d with im purity
elem ents of diffe rent prope rties and conc en tra tions, and com bined in diffe rent ways with P-type and N-
type se miconductors, ca n produc e a va rie ty of se miconducto r de vic es with dive rse applica tion s.
 1.1.3 PN junction and its single conductivity
Using different doping processes, P-type and N-type semiconductors are fabricated on the same silicon wafer, and a PN
junction is formed near their interface.
[Link] motion of charge carriers in PN junctions
On both sides of the interfac e betw ee n P-type and N-type se miconductors, due to the signific ant
diffe re nce in the conc entra tion of elec trons and hole s, multi ca rriers (e lec trons) in the N-type re gion
nee d to diffu se towards the P-type re gion; Me a nw hile, the multi ca rriers (hole s) in the P-type re gion
also nee d to diffuse towa rds the N-type re gion, as show n in Figure 1-1-8 (a). Whe n elec trons and hole s
mee t, they will rec ombine and disa ppe ar. So, a spac e cha rge region composed of im mobile positive and
nega tive ions is formed on both sides of the interfac e, whic h is the PN junc tion, as show n in Figure 1-1
-8 (b ).

(a) Diffusion motion of charge carriers in P-type and N-type regions

Figure 1-1-8 Formation of PN Junction

Due to the lac k of free ly moving charge ca rriers in the spac e charge region, it is also know n as the
depletion la ye r. Before diffusion, both the P-type and N-type re gions rem ain elec tric ally ne utral as a
who le, bec ause in the P-type re gion, the conce ntra tion of multi ca rriers (hole s) is equa l to the sum of
the conce ntra tion of negative ions and min ority carriers (ele ctrons), while in the N-type re gion, the
conc entra tion of ele c trons (multi ca rriers) is equa l to the sum of the conc entra tion of positive ions and
the conc entra tion of hole s (m inority ca rriers). How eve r, due to the diffusion motion of multiple
carriers, elec trons and hole s disappe ar due to re combina tion. Only positive and nega tive ions tha t
can not pa rticipate in conduc tivity re ma in in the spac e charge re gion, thus disrupting the origina l
elec tric al ne utrality of the N-type and P-type re gions. The right side (P-type re gion) of the spac e
cha rge re gion is ne ga tive ly cha rge d, and the le ft side (N -type re gion) is positive ly charged. Therefore ,
an internal elec tric field from the N-type region to the P-type re gion is ge ne rated be tw ee n the tw o.
Bec ause hole s are positive ly cha rge d while ele c trons are nega tively cha rge d, the effe ct of the inte rna l
elec tric fie ld will preve nt the diffusion of multiple carriers; How eve r, this internal elec tric fie ld is
bene fic ial fo r the move ment of min ority ca rriers, that is, it is benefic ia l for elec trons in the P-type
re gion to move towa rds the N-type re gion, and hole s in the N-type region to move towa rds the P-type
re gion. Usua lly, the direc tional motion of minority ca rriers unde r the ac tion of an interna l elec tric
field is ca lle d drift motion. In summa ry, there are tw o type s of ca rrier move ments occ urring in the PN
junc tion ; The diffusion motion of many ca rriers and the drift motion of fe w carriers. Unde r the abse nce
of exte rna l elec tric fie lds and othe r exc itations, the diffusion motion of many carriers and the drift
motion of fe w ca rriers re ac h dyna mic equilibrium.

[Link] conductivity of PN junction

If a voltage is applied at both ends of the PN junction, it will disrupt the original equilibrium state.
At this point, the diffusion current is no longer equal to the drift current, so there will be current flowing
through the PN junction. When the polarity of the applied voltage is different, the PN junction exhibits
completely different conductivity, that is, it exhibits single conductivity.
（1） PN junction in conduction state when applied with forward voltage
Wh e n th e po s i t i v e po l e of th e po w e r su p p l y (o r th e po s i t i v e po l e c o n n e c t e d in se r i e s wi t h a
re s i s t o r ) is c o n n e c t e d to th e P te r m i n a l of th e PN ju n c t i o n , a n d th e ne g a t i v e po l e of th e po w e r
su p p l y (o r th e ne g a t i v e po l e co n n e c t e d in se r i e s wi t h a re s i s t o r ) is c o n n e c t e d to th e N te r m i n a l of
th e PN ju n c t i o n , it is c a l l e d a po s i t i v e vo l t a g e a p p l i e d to th e PN ju n c t i o n , a s sh o w n in Fi g u r e s 1- 1 - 9 .
At th i s po i n t , th e e x t e r n a l el e c t r i c fi e l d pu s h e s mu l t i p l e c a r r i e r s to w a r d s th e sp a c e c h a r g e re g i o n ,
na r r o w i n g it , we a k e n i n g th e in t e r n a l e l e c t r i c fi e l d , di s r u p t i n g th e or i g i n a l ba l a n c e , in t e n s i f y i n g
di f f u s i o n mo t i o n , a n d w e a k e n i n g dr i f t mo t i o n . D u e to th e e f f e c t of th e po w e r su p p l y , di f f u s i o n
mo t i o n wi l l c o n t i n u e co n t i n u o u s l y , fo r m i n g a fo r w a r d c u r r e n t a n d c o n d u c t i n g th e PN ju n c t i o n . Wh e n
th e PN ju n c t i o n is c o n d u c t i n g , th e vo l t a g e dr o p is on l y a fe w te n t h s of a vo l t , so a re s i s t o r sh o u l d be
c o n n e c t e d in se r i e s in th e c i r c u i t w h e r e it is lo c a t e d to li m i t th e cu r r e n t in th e c i r c u i t a n d pr e v e n t
da m a g e to th e PN ju n c t i o n du e to ex c e s s i v e fo r w a r d c u r r e n t 。

（2） PN junction in cut-off state when reverse voltage is applied

When the positive pole of the power supply (or the positive pole connected in series with a resistor)

is connected to the N terminal of the PN junction, and the negative pole of the power supply (or the

negative pole connected in series with a resistor) is connected to the P terminal of the PN junction, it is

called a reverse voltage applied to the PN junction, as shown in Figure 1-10. At this point, the external

electric field widens the space charge region, strengthens the internal electric field, prevents diffusion

motion, and intensifies drift motion, forming a reverse current, also known as drift current. Due to the

extremely small number of minority carriers, even if all minority carriers participate in drift motion, the

reverse current is very small. Therefore, it is often ignored in approximate analysis, and it is considered

that the PN junction is in the cut-off state when reverse voltage is applied.

Figure 1-1-9 Conduction of PN junction with applied forward voltage Figure 1-10 PN junction cut-off when reverse voltage is applied
 3. The volt ampere characteristics of PN junction
Apply voltage U at both ends of the PN junction, and then measure the
current I flowing through the PN junction. The relationship curve between
voltage and current is the voltage ampere characteristic curve of the PN
junction, as shown in Figures 1-11.

Figure 1-11 PN junction volt ampere characteristic curve

 1.2 Diodes

1.2.1 Structure of diodes

Encapsulating the PN junction with a casing and adding electrode leads forms a diode. The electrode led out from the P-
type zone is the anode, and the electrode led out from the N-type zone is the cathode. The structure diagram and graphical
symbols of common diodes are shown in Figures 1-2-1.

(a) Point contact diode (b) Face contact diode

(c) Planar diode (c) Planar diode

Figure 1-2-1 Structure and Symbols of Diodes

There are many types of diodes, divided by the materials used to manufacture them,
including silicon diodes and germanium diodes. From the structure of diodes, there are mainly
point contact type and surface junction type. The characteristic of point contact diodes is that the
PN junction has a small area, so large currents are not allowed to pass through the diode;
However, due to their small junction capacitance, they can operate at high frequencies, making
them suitable for detection and low-power rectification circuits. On the other hand, surface
junction diodes are the opposite. Due to the large area of PN junctions, they allow for larger
currents to flow, but can only operate at lower frequencies and can be used in rectifier circuits.
In addition, there is a type of switching diode that serves as a switching transistor in impulse
digital circuits.
 1.2.2 Volt ampere characteristics of diodes
The performance of diodes can be described by their volt ampere characteristics. In order to measure the volt ampere
characteristics of the diode, a voltage U can be applied at both ends of the diode, and then the current I flowing through the
diode can be measured. The relationship curve between the current and voltage, I=f (U), is the volt ampere characteristics of the
diode, as shown in Figures 1-2-2. The volt ampere characteristic curve is divided into two parts: the characteristic when a
forward voltage is applied is called the forward characteristic (the right half of the curve in Figure 1-2-2); The characteristic of
adding reverse voltage is called reverse characteristic (left half of the curve in Figure 1-2-2).

Figure 1-2-2 Diode Voltage Ampere Characteristic Curve

[Link] characteristics
When the forward voltage applied to the diode is relatively small, the forward current is very small, almost
equal to 0. The forward current only increases significantly when the forward voltage at both ends of the diode
exceeds a certain value Uov. The value Uov on the positive characteristic is commonly referred to as the "dead
zone voltage", as shown in Figures 1-2-2. The magnitude of the dead zone voltage is related to factors such as the
material of the diode and temperature. Generally, the dead band voltage of silicon diodes is around 0.5V, while
that of germanium diodes is around 0.1V. When the forward voltage exceeds the dead zone voltage, the forward
current will rapidly increase as the voltage increases. The relationship between current and voltage is basically an
exponential curve.
[Link] characteristics
As shown in Figures 1-2-2, when a reverse voltage is applied to the diode, the value of the reverse
current is very small. And when the reverse voltage exceeds a few tenths of a volt, the reverse current no
longer increases with the reverse voltage, reaching saturation. This current is called the reverse saturation
current, represented by the symbol Is.
If the reverse voltage continues to rise, when it exceeds UBR, the reverse current will sharply increase. This phenomenon
is called breakdown, and Um is called the reverse breakdown voltage. After the diode is broken down, it no longer has single
conductivity.
It should be pointed out that the occurrence of breakdown does not necessarily mean that the diode is damaged. In fact,
when reverse breakdown occurs, as long as attention is paid to controlling the value of the reverse current to not make it too
large, it can avoid burning out the diode due to overheating; And when the reverse voltage decreases, the performance of the
diode may still return to normal.
According to the principles of semiconductor physics, the expression for the volt ampere characteristics of PN junction can
also be theoretically analyzed, which is commonly referred to as the diode equation, i.e
 Among them: Is is the reverse saturation current; Ur is the voltage equivalent of temperature, at room temperature (300K),
Ur=26mV. As can be seen from the diode equation, if a reverse voltage is applied to the diode, i.e. U<0 and | U |>Ur, then I ≈ -
Is. If a forward voltage is applied to the diode, i.e. U>0 and U>Ur, then e in the above equation ¹/ If Ur>1, it can be obtained
that I=Ise ¹ Ur, the current I and voltage U show an exponential relationship.

1.2.3 Main parameters of diodes

The parameters of electronic devices are a quantitative description of their characteristics and the main basis for
selecting devices according to requirements in practical work. The parameters of various devices can be found in the
manual. The main parameters of diodes are as follows.

1. M a x i m u m re c t i f i c a t i o n cu r r e n t
Ir refers to the maximum forward average current allowed by a diode during long-term operation. I: The value of is
limited by the temperature rise allowed by the diode. When in use, the average current of the diode should not exceed
this value, otherwise it may cause damage to the diode due to overheating.

[Link] reverse operating voltage

The reverse voltage applied to both ends of the diode during UG operation must not exceed this
value, otherwise the diode may be broken down. UR is often taken as 1/2 of the breakdown current Um.

[Link] current k
Ig refers to the reverse current flowing through a diode at room temperature when a specified reverse
voltage is applied to both ends of the diode. I usually hope that the smaller the Ig value, the better. The
smaller the reverse current, the better the unidirectional conductivity of the diode. In addition, due to the
fact that the reverse current is formed by fewer carriers, IR is greatly affected by temperature.

[Link] operating frequency f

The fm value mainly depends on the size of the PN junction capacitance. The larger the junction

capacitance, the lower the maximum allowable operating frequency of the diode.

[Example 1.2.] 1] The circuit is shown in Figures 1-2-3. Given ui=6sinwt V, D1 and D2 in the figure are ideal
diodes (with zero forward voltage drop during conduction and zero reverse current during cutoff). Try to draw ui and uo.
The waveform is marked with its amplitudee.

(a) (b)

Circuit diagram of Example 1.2.1 in Figures 1-2-3

Solution: In the circuit shown in Figure 1-2-3 (a), when ui>0, diode D1 conducts forward, equivalent to a short circuit, and
the output voltage uo1=-3V. When ui<0, if u;>- 3V, diode D1 conducts forward, equivalent to a short circuit, with an output
voltage of ui=-3V; When ui<0, if u<- 3V, diode D1 reverse cutoff, equivalent to an open circuit, output voltage uo1=uj, output
voltage waveform as shown in Figure 1-2-4 (a).
In the circuit shown in Figure 1-2-3 (b), when ui>0, if ui<3V, D1 and D2 are cut off in reverse, uo2=ui; When ui>0,
if ui>3V, D1 cuts off, uo1=u; D1 conducts in the forward direction, D2 cuts off in the reverse direction, uo2=3V. When
ui<0, if ui>-3V, D1 when ui<0, if u<-3V, D1 will reverse cut off, D2 will conduct forward, uo2=-3V, and the waveform
of D2's reverse output voltage is shown in Figure 1-2-4 (b).

(a) (b)

Figure 1-2-4 Example 1.2.1 Waveform Diagram

1.2.4 Voltage regulator

Ordinary diodes are not allowed to operate in a reverse breakdown state. If the diode is in a reverse
breakdown state, it will cause permanent damage to the diode due to excessive current flowing through
the PN junction. According to the volt ampere characteristic curve of the diode, when the diode is
reverse breakdown, the current flowing through the diode increases sharply, but the voltage at both ends
of the diode remains almost unchanged. By utilizing the characteristic of diodes, a special process is
used to make a diode that operates in a reverse breakdown state without damage, which is called a Zener
diode (also known as a unidirectional breakdown diode).
As long as certain process measures are taken, the reverse breakdown curve of the voltage regulator
will be very steep, and the breakdown voltage Um will remain almost unchanged, so it is called stable
voltage and is represented by Uz instead. The volt ampere characteristic curve of the voltage regulator is
shown in Figure 1-2-5 (a), and the commonly used symbols and equivalent circuits are shown in Figure 1
-2-5 (b). The voltage regulator is commonly represented by the character Dz in the circuit.
 (a) volt-ampere characteristic (b) Symbols and equivalent circuits

Figure 1-2-5 Voltage current characteristics and equivalent circuit of voltage regulator.
From the volt ampere characteristic curve of the voltage regulator, it can be seen that the forward
characteristics of the voltage regulator are basically the same as those of ordinary diodes, but the reverse
characteristics are different. When the reverse voltage is small and the reverse current is almost zero, the
voltage regulator is still in the cut-off state and does not have the characteristics of voltage regulation.
When the reverse voltage increases to the breakdown voltage Uz, the reverse current Iz will increase
sharply. The breakdown voltage Uz is the working voltage of the voltage regulator, and Iz is the working
current of the voltage regulator. There are mainly two series of voltage regulators, 2CW and 2DW, with
parameters such as stable voltage Uz and stable current Iz, as shown in Table 1-2-1.
Table 1-2-1 Main Parameters of Voltage Stabilizer

ModelExample
2CW7C 2DW7C 2DW151 Parameter significance
parameter
UZ is the voltage value at both ends of the voltage regulator
Stable voltage Uz/V during normal operation. Ke Gen Select according to actual
5～6.5 6～6.5 440～510 needs in the semiconductor device manual。

IZ is the reference current when the voltage regulator is

operating in a stable state. In principle, IZmin<Iz<IZmax.
Stable current Iz/mA 10 10 5 IZmin is the minimum necessary operation for a voltage regulator
to maintain normal voltage . When the current is below this value,
the voltage stabilizing effect deteriorates or even does not stabilize.
IZmax is the maximum operating current that a voltage
regulator can maintain normally. When the current exceeds
this value, it may be damaged due to high PN junction
temperature.
The maximum working current IZmax of the voltage
regulator and the voltage at both ends of the voltage
Maximum
dissipation regulator.
power PzM/W 0.25 0.2 10
The product of UZ is called the maximum
dissipated power PZM of the voltage regulator. stable
When the power consumption PZ of the voltage
regulator (the product of the working current Iz of the
voltage regulator and the voltage UZ at both ends of the
voltage regulator) exceeds PZM, the voltage regulator
will be damaged due to high PN junction temperature.
The voltage regulator operates within the voltage
stabilization zone, and the ratio of the change in terminal
Dynamic resistance voltage to the change in terminal current, △ UZ/△ IZ, is the
30 10 800 dynamic resistance rD.
ro/Ω
The smaller the rD, the better the characteristics of the
voltage regulator。
 The change in stable voltage UZ caused by every 1 ℃
change in temperature.
Usually, when UZ<5V, it has a negative temperature
Voltage temperature coefficient, and when UZ>7V, it has a negative temperature
coefficient A/(10- —3～+5 0.05 12 coefficient
4/℃) The positive temperature coefficient is the smallest when
5V<UZ<7V, so
Some precision voltage regulators often use voltage
regulators with UZ=around 6V and use
Two types of voltage regulators with positive and
negative temperature coefficients are connected in series to
form a temperature compensation voltage regulator.

When the reverse current of the voltage regulator is less than I Zmi n , the operation of the voltage
regulator is unstable; When it is greater than I Zmx , it will be damaged due to exceeding the maximum
dissipation power PZM. Therefore, a resistor must be connected in series in the voltage regulator circuit
to limit the current and ensure the normal operation of the voltage regulator. This resistor is called a
current limiting resistor, as shown in Figure 1-2-6.
In the voltage regulator circuit shown in Figures 1-2-6, it is known that the stable voltage Uz of the
voltage regulator is 6V, the minimum stable current I Zmin is 10mA, and the maximum stable current I Zmax
is 30mA; Load resistance RL=1200 Ω. Find the range of values for the current limiting resistance R.

Solution: From the circuit shown in Figures 1-2-6, it can be seen that the voltage on the current

limiting resistor R:

UR = UI - UZ = (10 - 6) V = 4V
The current IR on R is equal to the sum of the current IDZ in the voltage regulator and the load

current IRL, i.e

I R =I DZ +I RL

In the formula: I DZ =（10～30v ）mA ；I RL= Uz / RL= 6V/1200 Ω = 5mA。

t herefore IR = ( 15～35 ) mA。
t herefore

So, the value range of the current limiting resistor R is 114-267 Ω.

 1.3 Bipolar Transistor

B i p o l a r tr a n s i s t o r (B J T ) , al s o kn o w n as s e m i c o n d u c t o r tr a n s i s t o r or tr a n s i s t o r . Fi g u r e s 1- 3
sh o w s e v e r a l co m m o n s h a p e s of tr a n s i s t o r s . Fi g u r e s 1- 3 - 1 (a ) an d 1- 3 - 1 (b ) s h o w lo w - p o w e r
tr a n s i s t o r s , Fi g u r e s 1- 3 - 1 (c ) s h o w me d i u m po w e r tr a n s i s t o r s , an d Fi g u r e s 1- 3 - 1 (d ) s h o w hi g h
po w e r tr a n s i s t o r s .

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1-3-1 Common Shapes of Transistors

1.3.1 Structure and type of transistor

The basic structure of a transistor is composed of two PN structures, which can be divided
into two types based on the composition of the PN junction: NPN and PNP, as shown in Figures 1-
3-2. As shown in the figure, both types of transistors have three internal regions: collector region,
base region, and emitter region. The electrodes introduced by the three zones are called collector,
base, and emitter, respectively represented by c, b, and e. From Figures 1-3 to 2, it can be seen that
each tube has two PN junctions, called collector junctions and emitter junctions, respectively.
Although NPN type transistors and PNP type transistors have different structures, their working
principles are the same. Just note that when in use, the power polarity of the two transistors is opposite.
In Figures 1-3-2, the arrows in the circuit symbols of NPN type transistors and PNP type transistors
indicate the actual direction of emitter current during transistor operation.
The structure of transistors has the following two main characteristics in terms of
technology:

(1 ) Th e ba s e re g i o n lo c a te d in th e mi d d le mu s t be ve r y th in , ab o u t a fe w mi c r o m e te r s , an d
ha v e th e lo w e s t im p u r i ty co n c e n t r a t i o n .

( 2 ) T h e s e m i c o n d u c t o r ty p e s i n t h e e m i s s i o n a n d c o l l e c t i o n a r e a s ar e t h e s a m e , b u t t h e
im p u r i t y c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e e m i s s i o n a r e a is m u c h h i g h e r th a n th a t i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n a r e a .
 Figure 1-3-2 Structural diagram and graphical symbols of bipolar transistors

It is these two characteristics that enable transistors to have current control and

amplification effects.

The naming method for domestically produced transistors is as follows:

Among them, semiconductor materials and types are divided into four types: A, B, C, and D, with the
following meanings:
A—— PNP of germanium materials;B —— NPN of germanium materials;C—— PNP of
silicon materials;D —— NPN of silicon materials。
The commonly used functional types of transistors are as follows:
X —— Low frequency low power;G —— High frequency low power;D —— Low
frequency high power;A ——High frequency and high power;K ——Switching。

1.3.2 Transistor current control function

1. Ba s ic co mm o n bea m am pl if ic a ti o n cir cu it
Amplification is the most basic processing of analog signals. Transistors are the core
components of amplification circuits. An amplification circuit is a four terminal network
with input and output ports. To connect the three pins of a transistor into a four terminal
network circuit, one pin of the transistor must be used as the common terminal. The
amplification circuit with a common emitter is called a basic common emitter amplification
circuit, as shown in Figures 1-3.
The base and emitter in Figures 1-3 are the input terminals, the collector and emitter are
the output terminals, and the emitter is the output terminal of the circuit
This circuit is called a basic common beam amplification circuit because it has a
common output terminal.
 The base and emitter in Figures 1-3 are the input terminals, the collector and emitter are
the output terminals, and the emitter is the output terminal of the circuit

This circuit is called a basic common beam amplification circuit because it has a
common output terminal.
The ui in Figures 1-3 is the input signal to be amplified, uo is the amplified output
signal, VBB is the base power supply, which is used to bias the emitter junction of the
transistor in a forward direction, VCC is the collector power supply, which is used to bias
the collector junction of the transistor in a reverse direction, and Rc is the collector
resistance.

Figure 1-3 Basic common beam amplification circuit

[Link] movement of charge carriers inside transistors in basic common beam amplification circuits
The schematic diagram of the movement of carriers inside the transistor of the basic
common beam amplification circuit is shown in Figures 1-3-4. The movement pattern of
carriers can be divided into the following processes.

Figure 1-3-4 Schematic diagram of carrier movement inside the transistor of a basic common beam amplification circuit

(1 ) Th e pr o c e s s of em i t t i n g el e c t r o n s fr o m th e em i t t i n g re g i o n to th e ba s e re g i o n
The emission junction is located at a forward bias, causing the multiple carriers (free
electrons) in the emission region to continuously diffuse to the base region through the
emission junction, i.e. emitting electrons towards the base region. At the same time, the
holes in the base region will also diffuse to the emission region. Due to the significant
difference in doping concentration between the two, the charge carriers that form the emitter
current IE are mainly electrons, and the direction of the current is opposite to that of the
electron flow. The electrons emitted from the emission zone are supplemented by the
negative electrode of the power supply Vcc.
( 2 ) T h e d i f f u s i o n a n d r e c o m b i n a t i o n p r o c e s s o f e l e c t r o n s in t h e b a s e r e g i o n
The electrons that diffuse to the base region will have a small portion recombine with
the holes in the base region, while the base power supply Vm continuously provides holes to
the base region, forming the base current IB. Due to the low and thin doping concentration in
the base region, there are very few electrons recombining with holes in the base region, so
the base current IB is also very small. Except for a small portion of the electrons that are
recombined by the base region, a large number of electrons can diffuse to the edge of the
collector junction.
(3) The process of collecting electrons at a collector junction
The reverse biased collector junction hinders the diffusion of multiple free electrons
from the collector region to the base region, but the electrons diffusing to the edge of the
collector junction cross the collector junction under the action of the collector electric field
and reach the collector region, forming a collector current Ic under the action of the
collector power supply VCC.

3. Cu rr en t dis t r ibu t io n rela t i o ns h ip an d cur re nt ampl if ic a t io n co ef f ici en t of tr a ns i s t o rs

According to the above analysis and node current law, the relationship between the
currents IE, IB, and IC of the three electrodes of the transistor is IE=IB+IC, and IB<<IC. It
indicates that the majority of electrons emitted by the emitter of the transistor reach the
collector region through the base region, with only a few electrons recombining with holes in
the base region, which is the current distribution relationship of the transistor.
When IB has an increment △ IB, IC and IE also have corresponding increments △ IC
and △ IE, △ IE= △ IB+ △ IC, and △ IB<<△ IC. This indicates that when there is a small
change in the base current △ IB of the transistor, it will cause a significant change in the
collector current △ IC. This is the current amplification effect of the transistor.
The ratio of the change in collector current △ IC to the change in base current △ IB is
called the co current amplification factor β:

The ratio of collector current IC to base current IB is called the co current amplification

factor :

1.3.3 Common emission characteristic curve of transistor

The characteristic curve of a transistor is a curve that describes the voltage and current
relationship between the various electrodes of the transistor. They are the manifestation of
the movement of charge carriers inside the transistor on the outside of the transistor, and are
used to analyze and estimate the performance, parameters, and circuit of the transistor.
1. Input characteristic curve
The input characteristic curve describes the functional relationship between the base
current iB and the emission junction voltage drop uBE , while the transistor voltage drop
(hereinafter referred to as the transistor voltage drop) UCE remains constant, i.e
iB=f(uBE)|U CE=constant
As shown in Figures 1-3, the characteristics of the common emitter input characteristic
curve of NPN type transistors are:
 (1) There is also an opening voltage on the input characteristic curve. Within the
opening voltage, although uBE is greater than 0, iB is almost still 0. Only when the value of
uBE is greater than the opening voltage, the value of iB increases exponentially with the
increase of uBE , just like the diode. The turn-on voltage of silicon transistors is about 0.5V,
and the conduction voltage range of the emission junction is 0.6-0.7V; The turn-on voltage
of germanium transistors is about 0.2V, and the conduction voltage range of the emission
junction is 0.2-0.3V.
(2)The three curves represent the case of UCE=0V, UCE=0.5V, and UCE =1V, respectively.
When UCE =0V, it is equivalent to a short circuit between the collector and emitter, that is,
the collector and emitter are connected in parallel, and the input characteristic curve is
similar to the forward characteristic curve of the PN junction. UCE=1V, the collector junction
is in reverse bias, the internal electric field is strengthened, and the majority of electrons
injected into the base region in the emission region are pulled to the collector region, with
only a few recombining with the holes in the base region to form iB. At the same uBE , the
base current decreases compared to UCE =0V, causing the curve to shift to the right. After
UCE >1V, the input characteristics almost overlap with the characteristic curve at UCE =1V.
This is because after UCE>1V, the collector collects almost all the electrons emitted from the
emission region, which has little effect on the recombination of electrons and holes in the
base region, and the change in iB is not significant. So, usually only one curve is drawn when
UCE>1V
2. Out pu t cha r a c te ri s t ic cur v e
Th e ou tp u t ch a ra ct er is tic cu r v e des c ri b es th e fu n c ti o n al re la tio n s h ip be tw ee n th e co ll ec to r
cu r re n t i C an d th e tu b e vol ta g e dr o p u C E wh en th e in p u t cu r re n t IB is a co n s t an t , i. e
Th e co n s ta n t out p u t ch ar ac te ri s ti c cu rv e of i C =f (u C E ) | IB = is sh o wn in Fig u r es 1- 3 - 6 . Wh en
I B ch an g e s , th e rel at io n s h i p betw e en i C an d u C E is a par al le l fa m il y of cu r v es wit h th r ee wo r k in g
re g io n s : cu to f f , am p li f ica ti o n , an d sat u ra ti o n .

Figure 1-3-5 Transistor Input Characteristic Curve Figure 1-3-6 Transistor Output Characteristic Curve

(1) Cutoff zone

Th e are a be lo w th e I B =0 ch a ra ct er is tic cu r v e is call ed th e cu to f f zo n e . At th is poi n t, th e
co ll ec to r ju n ct io n of th e tr an s i s to r is in a re v er s e bias sta te , an d th e em is s io n ju n ct io n vol ta g e
u B E <U O N is als o in a rev e r s e bi as st at e. Du e to I B =0 , und e r th e pr em is e of ne g li g ib l e re v er s e
satu r a tio n cu r re n t, i C = β I B is als o eq u a l to 0, an d th e tra n s i s to r has no cu r re n t am p li fi ca ti o n
ef fe ct . Tr a n s is t o rs in th e cu to f f sta te , wit h bot h th e em it te r an d co lle ct o r ju n ct io n s in re v er s e
bi as , ac t lik e a dis c o n n ec te d swi tch in th e cir c u it.
Th e actu a l si tu a tio n is th at th e co ll ec to r of a tra n s is to r in th e cu t- o f f st at e has a ve r y sm al l
cu r re n t I C E O , wh ic h is ca lle d th e tr an s i s to r 's th ro u g h cu r re n t. It is th e cu r re n t me as u r e d be tw ee n
th e co ll ec to r an d em it te r wh e n th e bas e is ope n , an d is no t co n tr o l led by I B , but is af fe c ted by
tem p e r atu r e ch a n g es .
(2) Saturation zone
In th e tr a n s is to r am p li fi ca ti o n cir cu i t sh o wn in Fig u r es 1- 3 , th e co ll ec to r is co n n ec te d to a
re s is t o r R C . If th e po w er su p p ly vol ta g e Vcc is co n s ta n t, as th e co ll ec to r cu r re n t i C in cr e as e s ,
u C E =V cc - Rc wil l de cr e as e . Wh en th e u C E of a sili co n tr an s i s to r de cr ea s e s to les s th an 0. 7 V , th e
co ll ec to r ju n ct io n als o en te rs a fo r w ar d bi as st at e, an d th e ab il ity of th e co ll ec to r to att r ac t
ele ct ro n s de cr e as e s . At th is poi n t, as i B in cr ea s e s , i C alm o s t no lo n g er in cr e as e s , an d th e
tra n s i s to r lo s es its cu rr e n t am p li f ica ti o n ef fe ct . Th is wo r k in g sta te is cal le d satu r a tio n .
Th e st at e wh e n u C E =u B E is def in e d as th e cr iti ca l sa tu r at io n sta te , an d th e das h e d lin e in
Fig u r es 1- 3 to 6 rep r e s en t s th e cri ti ca l sat u ra ti o n lin e .
Wh en th e vo l ta g e u C E at bot h en d s of th e tr a n s is to r is les s th an U C E S (s a tu r a ted tr an s i s to r
vo l ta g e dr o p ) , th e tr an s i s to r wil l en te r a dee p satu r a tio n st at e. In th e de e p sa tu r a tio n sta te , i C =
β i B Th e re la tio n s h ip betw e en i B doe s not ho ld , as bo t h th e em itt er an d co ll ec to r ju n ct io n s of th e
tra n s i s to r are in a fo r w ar d bia s sta te , res em b l in g a clo s ed swi tc h in th e cir cu i t.
Th e va ri o u s swi tc h cir c u its in dig i ta l cir c u its ar e mad e us in g th e ch a ra ct er is tic s of
tra n s i s to r cu to f f an d sat u ra ti o n , wh ic h ar e ver y sim i lar to th e ch ar a cte r is t ic s of sw it ch on an d
of f .
(3) Zoom in area
Th e pa rt betw e en th e satu r a tio n an d cu to f f re g io n s of th e tr an s i s to r out p u t ch ar a cte r is t ic
cu r v e is th e am p li f ica ti o n re g io n . Tr an s i s to r s wo r k in g in th e am p li fi ca tio n reg i o n on l y ha v e
cu r re n t am p li f ica ti o n ef fe c t. At th is po i n t, th e em it tin g ju n ct io n of th e tra n s i s to r is in a fo r w ar d
bi as sta te wit h u B E >U O N , an d th e co ll ec to r ju n cti o n is in a re v er s e bias sta te wit h u C E >u B E . As
can be se en fr o m th e ch a ra ct er is tic cu r v e of th e am p lif i ca tio n ar ea , sin c e i C is on ly co n tr o ll ed
by i B , i C = β I B is alm o s t in d ep e n d en t of th e siz e of u C E , in d ic at in g th at a tra n s is to r in an
am p li fi ed sta te is eq u iv a le n t to a co n tr o lle d cu r re n t so u rc e wit h i B co n tr o l lin g th e out p u t cu r re n t
iC.

1.3.4 Main parameters of transistors

1. Co e ff ic ie nt s of co mm o n cur r en t am pl if ic a ti o n β And g
In a co m m o n em it te r am p li f ier cir c u it, if th e A C in p u t ui si g n al is 0, th e vol ta g e an d cu rr e n t
be tw ee n th e tr a n s is to r s ar e bot h dir ec t cu r re n t. At th is tim e , th e ra ti o of th e co ll ec to r cu rr e n t Ic
to th e bas e cu r re n t I B is th e co m m o n em it te r dir e ct cu r re n t am p li f ica ti o n co e ff ic ie n t β , β = I C /I B .
Wh en th e co m m o n em itt er am p lif i er cir cu i t has an A C sig n a l in p u t, th e ef fe c t of th e A C
sig n al wil l in ev i ta b ly ca u s e a ch a n g e in Ig , wh ic h wil l als o cau s e a ch a n g e in Ic. Th e ra ti o of
th e ch a n g es in th e two cu r re n ts is cal le d th e co m m o n em it te r A C cu r re n t am p li fi ca ti o n
co ef f ic ie n t β , β = △ I C /△ I B .
 β an d β Alt h o u g h th ey hav e di ff e re n t me an i n g s , tr an s i s to r s wo r k in g in th e fl at par t of th e
am p li fi ca ti o n reg i o n of th e ou t p u t ch a ra ct er is tic cu r v e ha v e ver y sm al l dif fe r en c es an d ca n be
tre at ed as ap p r o x im a tel y eq u al . Th er e fo r e , in fu t u re ap p li ca ti o n s , th ey are us u al ly not
di s ti n g u is h e d an d can be di re ct ly us ed as su b s ti tu te s fo r eac h ot h er .

[Link] reverse saturation current I C B O and I C E O

(1) The reverse saturation current I C B 0 of the collector junction refers to the collector current
measured when the emitter is open and a reverse voltage is applied to the collector junction.
(2) Collector emitter reverse current (I C E O ) refers to the reverse current between the collector and
emitter when the base is open circuit, which is the penetration current. The size of the penetration
current is greatly affected by temperature changes, and transistors with low penetration current have
good thermal stability.

[Link] parameters
(1) The maximum allowable current of the collector is within a considerable range for the
collector current i C of an I C M transistor, β Basically unchanged, but when the value of i C reaches a
certain level, the current amplification factor β The value will decrease. send β The significantly
reduced i C is called I C M .
(2) When a P C M transistor operates with a maximum allowable power consumption of the
collector, the collector current will generate heat on the collector junction, so the power consumed
is the collector power consumption (simple power consumption) P C M , which means P C M =i C u C E .
Power consumption is related to the junction temperature of the transistor, which is also
related to environmental temperature, whether the transistor has a heat sink, and other conditions.
According to the formula P C M =i C u C E , the allowable power consumption line of the transistor can be
drawn on the output characteristic curve, as shown in Figures 1-3-7. The lower left corner of the
power consumption line is the safe working area, and the upper right corner is the over loss area.
(4) Reverse breakdown voltage U B R (CEO)

The reverse breakdown voltage U B R (CEO) refers to the maximum allowable voltage applied
between the collector and emitter when the base is open circuit. In use, if the voltage u C E at both
ends of the transistor is greater than U B R (CEO) , the collector current I C will increase sharply, and
this phenomenon is called breakdown.

Figure 1-3-7 Power consumption curve of transistors

4. The influence of temperature on transistor parameters

 Almost all transistor parameters are temperature dependent, so they cannot be ignored. Temperature has the

greatest impact on the following three parameters.

(1) For β The influence of values

Transistor β The value will increase with the increase of temperature, and for every 1 ℃
increase in temperature, β The value increases by 0.5% to 1%, resulting in an increase in collector
current I C with increasing temperature under the same I B condition.
(2) The impact on reverse saturation current I C E O
I C E O is formed by minority carrier drift motion and is closely related to ambient temperature.
I C E O increases sharply with increasing temperature. If the temperature rises by 10 ℃, I C E O will
double. Due to the small I C E O of silicon tubes, temperature has little effect on the I C E O of silicon
tubes.
(3) The influence on the emission junction voltage U C E
Like the forward characteristics of diodes, a temperature increase of 1 ℃ will result in a
decrease of UCE by 2-2.5mV.
In summary, as the temperature rises, β The value will increase, i C will also increase, and u C E
will decrease, which is not conducive to the amplification effect of the transistor. Corresponding
measures should be taken to overcome the influence of temperature during use.
 1.4 Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor

Field Effect Transistor (FET) is a semiconductor device that uses the electric field effect of
the input circuit to control the output circuit current. Due to its reliance solely on multi carrier
conduction in semiconductors, it is also known as a unipolar transistor. Transistors can be divided
into two categories based on their structure: junction type and insulated gate type. This book only
introduces the more widely used Insulated Gate FET (IGFET).
The gate and source, as well as the gate and drain of an insulated gate field-effect transistor,
are isolated by a SiO₂ insulation layer, hence the name insulated gate. Or according to the material
composition of its metal oxide semiconductor, it can be called a MOS (Metal Oxide Semiconductor)
tube.

1.4.1 Basic structure and working principle

Insulated gate field-effect transistors have two types: N-channel and P-channel, each of which
is further divided into enhanced and depleted types. The structure of an N-channel insulated gate
field-effect transistor is shown in Figures 1-4-1. On a low doped P-type semiconductor (often
referred to as a substrate), two highly doped N+semiconductor regions are diffused and two
electrodes are introduced, called source S and drain D, respectively. On P-type semiconductors with
two N+intervals, an extremely thin SiO₂ insulation layer is oxidized, and a layer of metal aluminum
is made on the SiO₂ insulation layer to lead out the electrode as the gate G.

（a）Depletion type (b) enhancement mode

Figure 1-4-1 Structure of N-channel insulated gate field-effect transistor

As shown in Figure 1-4-1 (a), when manufacturing N-channel MOSFETs, if a large number of
positive ions are added to the SiO ₂ insulation layer, a strong enough electric field will be formed
on the surface of the P-type substrate between the two N + regions. The holes in the P-type substrate
will be repelled to the far end, and the electrons in the substrate will be attracted to the surface,
forming an N-type thin layer, which will communicate the two N + regions, namely the drain and
source. This N-type thin layer is called an N-type conductive channel, also known as the inversion
layer because it is an N-type layer in a P-type substrate. This type of MOS transistor has already
formed a conductive channel during manufacturing, known as a depletion type MOS transistor.
As shown in Figure 1-4-1 (b), if the conductive channel is not pre formed during
manufacturing, but is generated by an electric field formed by an external gate source voltage, then
this type of MOSFET is called an enhanced MOSFET. When U G S >0, G and S are like the two plates
of a flat capacitor, and SiO₂ and P-type substrates are like the dielectric in the capacitor. When a
forward voltage is applied between G-S, an electric field is formed between them. Under the action
of this electric field, holes in the P-type substrate are repelled to the far end, and electrons in the
substrate are attracted to the surface, forming an N-type conductive channel. When U G S ↑, negative
charge Q 负 is induced to be negative ↑; When there are U G S ↑↑, a negative charge Q 负 is induced ↑↑...
When U G S increases to a certain value, such as U G S =MTN, Q 负 negative increases enough to connect
the two N + regions exactly. At this time, as long as U G S ≠ 0, D-S will conduct, that is, I D ≠ 0; If U G S
continues to increase, the induced Q 负 will continue to increase, the D-S conductivity will be
stronger, and the I D will be larger; On the contrary, if UGS decreases, Q 负 decreases negatively, I D
decreases... I D increases with U G S and decreases with U G S . If a resistor R D is connected in series in
the D lead, the I D will generate a voltage drop on the R D and change with the change of U G S .
Obviously, this is a voltage controlled transistor.
P-channel MOSFETs are named after the generation of P-type inversion layers on N-type
substrates. Its structure and working principle are similar to N-channel MOSFETs. The polarity of
the gate source voltage and drain source voltage used is opposite to that of N-channel MOSFETs.
The graphical symbols of various types of MOS transistors are shown in Figures 1-4-2. In the
symbol of an enhanced MOSFET, the connection between the source S and drain D is broken,
indicating that the conductive channel has not yet formed when U G S =0.

(a) N-channel depletion type (b)N-channel enhanced type (c) P-channel depletion type (d) Enhanced P-channel

Figure 1-4-2 Graphical symbols of MOSFETs

Due to the fact that only one polarity of charge carriers (electrons in the N channel and holes
in the P channel) participate in conduction during MOSFET operation, it is also known as a
unipolar transistor. Similar to the common emitter connection method of bipolar transistors,
MOSFETs often use a common source connection method, as shown in Figures 1-4-3.

Figure 1-4-3 Common Source Connection Circuit

When U G S ↑, negative charge Q is induced to be negative ↑; When U G S ↑↑, a negative charge Q

is induced... When U G S increases to a certain value, such as U G S =M T N , Q negative increases enough
to connect the two N + regions. At this time, as long as U G S ≠ 0, D-S will conduct, that is, I D ≠ 0; If
U G S continues to increase, the induced Q negative will continue to increase, the D-S conductivity
will be stronger, and the I D will be larger; On the contrary, if U G S decreases, Q decreases negatively,
I D decreases... I D increases with U G S and decreases with U G S . If a resistor R D is connected in series
in the D lead, the I D will generate a voltage drop on the R D and change with the change of U G S .
Obviously, this is a voltage controlled transistor.

MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) and BJT are both
semiconductor transistors, with the source, drain, and gate of MOSFET acting as the emitter,
collector, and base of BJT, respectively. The collector current Ic of BJT is controlled by the base
current I B and is a current control device; The drain current I D of MOSFET is controlled by the gate
source voltage U G S and is a voltage control device. Compared with BJT, MOSFET has advantages
such as high input resistance, low noise, good thermal stability, strong radiation resistance, and low
power consumption. These advantages have made it widely used in various electronic circuits since
its inception in the 1960s. In addition, the manufacturing process of MOSFETs is relatively simple,
occupying a small chip area, and is particularly suitable for manufacturing large-scale integrated
circuits. Similar to BJT, MOSFET can not only be used for signal amplification through U G S control
of I D , but also as a switching element to control its conduction or turn off through U G S . It is widely
used in switching circuits and pulse digital circuits.

1.4.2 Characteristic curves of insulated gate field-effect transistors

IGFET, also known as MOSFET, has characteristics including transfer characteristics and
output characteristics.
The output characteristics of NMOS are similar to the output volt ampere characteristic curve
of NPN transistors, except that the parameter is the gate source voltage u G S .
The N-channel enhanced MOSFET does not have the original conductive channel, and the two
N + regions of the drain and source are separated by a P-type substrate. The drain and source are
equivalent to two back-to-back PN junctions. When 0<u G S <U G S (th) , the conductive channel is not
yet connected, and regardless of the polarity of the drain source voltage ups, there is always a PN
junction that is reverse biased, so the drain current i D =0. Only when u G S >U G S (th) will drain current
i D appear. The critical gate source voltage that causes MOSFETs to change from non conducting to
conducting under a certain drain source voltage u D S is called the turn-on voltage U G S (th) . As shown
in Figure 1-4 (a), the transfer characteristics reflect the control characteristics of u G S on i D .

(a) transfer characteristic (b) output characteristics

Figure 1-4-4 Transfer and output characteristic curves of N-channel enhanced MOS
 As shown in Figure 1-4 (b), on the output characteristic curve:
(1) When uGS<UGS (th), the channel is not yet connected, so regardless of the value of uDS, iD ≈ 0 is commonly
referred to as the cutoff zone.

(2) When uGS>UGS (th), more induced charges are generated and the channels are connected; But when uDS=0,
iD is still 0, so the curve will pass through the coordinate origin O. At this point, uDS=0, and the substrate is connected
to the source (ground), so the induced charges are uniformly distributed along the channel.

(3) When uGS>UGS (th), for example, uGS=2.5V and uDS ≠ 0, iD ≠ 0, uGS ↑ makes iD ↑, which is the OA segment in
Figure 1-4 (b). At this point, the transistor acts like a resistor, hence it is called the resistance segment.
(4) If the uDS increases, the iD almost no longer increases with the increase of uDS, but under a certain uDS, the iD
increases with the increase of uGS. Therefore, this area is called the linear amplification area or constant current area,
which works in this area when used for amplification. If the drain source voltage is too high, when it exceeds the
maximum drain source breakdown voltage UDS (BR), it will cause the PN junction between the drain region and the
substrate to reverse breakdown, entering the breakdown region and damaging the MOSFET.
The polarity of the drain and gate power supplies of P-channel enhanced MOSFETs is opposite to that of N-
channel enhanced MOSFETs, so their transfer characteristic curves are in the third quadrant. That is to say, a negative
polarity power supply should be added between the drain and source of the P-channel enhanced MOSFET, and the
MOSFET can only conduct when the gate potential is lower than the source potential | UGS (th) |.
The depletion type MOSFET has an original conductive channel, so when uGS=0, the drain current already exists,
represented by IDSS, which is called saturated drain current. The transfer characteristic curve and output characteristic
curve of N-channel depletion type MOSFET are shown in Figures 1-4-5.
If uGS decreases (i.e. increases in the negative direction) to a certain value, the N-type channel disappears, iD ≈ 0,
and the depletion type MOSFET is in a pinched off state (i.e. cut off), the gate source voltage at this time is called the
pinched off voltage UGS (off), as shown in Figure 1-4-5 (a). It can be seen that regardless of whether the gate source
voltage UGS is positive, negative, or 0, the depletion type MOSFET can control the drain current iD, which makes its
application more flexible.
Like enhanced MOSFETs, depletion type also has N-channel and P-channel differentiation. Regardless of the type
of MOSFET, attention must be paid to the polarity of the applied voltage when using it.
The main difference between enhanced and depleted MOSFETs lies in whether there are original conductive
[Link], if you want to distinguish whether a MOSFET without a model is enhanced or depleted, you just need to
check whether it can conduct when applying voltage between the drain and source electrodes at zero gate voltage, and
then you can make a judgment.

(a) transfer characteristic (b)output characteristics

Figure 1-4-5 Transfer and Output Characteristics of N-channel Depleted MOSFETs

 1. 4 . 3 Ma i n pa r a m e t e r s of in s u l a t e d ga t e fi e l d - e f f e c t tr a n s i s t o r s
The turn-on voltage UGS (th) of enhanced MOSFETs, the clamp off voltage UDS (off) and
saturated drain current IDSS of depleted MOSFETs, as well as the common maximum drain source
breakdown voltage UDS (BR), have been introduced when introducing the transfer and output
characteristics of MOSFETs. Now, only the following parameters are introduced.
(1) Gate source D C input resistor R GS. In the case of a short circuit between the drain and source
terminals, the ratio of the applied gate source D C voltage to the gate D C current is the gate source DC
input resistance. Due to the fact that MOSFET is a voltage control component, the RGS value is large,
generally greater than 10 9 Ω, which is one of the advantages of MOSFET.
(2) Gate source breakdown voltage U GS (BR ) . The gate source breakdown voltage is the U GS value at
which the insulation layer breakdown rapidly increases the IG during the process of increasing the U GS
of MOSFETs.

(3) The maximum drain current I DM and maximum dissipated power P DM are both limit parameters
of MOSFETs. I DM is the maximum drain current allowed to flow during MOSFET operation. P DM is the
maximum dissipated power (P D =I D U DS ) allowed by the drain of a MOSFET during normal operation,
limited by the maximum operating temperature of the MOSFET.
(4) Low frequency transconductance g M . Low frequency transconductance is the ratio of the small
change in drain current △ I D to the corresponding input voltage change △ U GS when u DS is a fixed
value, i.e

Its unit often uses μS and mS (S stands for West Gate, which is the unit symbol for conductivity).
Its size is the slope of the transfer characteristic curve at the working point, and its value varies
depending on the position of the working point. g M characterizes the magnitude of the control effect of
gate source voltage on drain current and is a parameter for measuring the amplification capability of
MOSFETs.