Aksum University

College of Engineering and Technology

Chapter One
Introduction
Chapter Objectives
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
 Define basic terms used in computer application
 Identify types of computers
 Understand the evolution and generation of computers
 Explain the characteristics of computer
 List out computer application with reference to students’ study area

1.1. Key Concepts

1.1.1. The Nature of Information

In the following discussion, that something called information is defined in a way that is useful
for understanding the basic application of computers and communications technology. Before
jump to discussing about information, let us have a brief look on related concepts.

i. Data

Data are specific numerical or symbolic representations of facts about the world. Data are the
elements to be input, stored, and manipulated by the computer. During data processing,
computers are simply used to transform facts from one medium to another, for example, printing
a payroll check from a list of employee salaries. Validity refers to the question of whether or not
our data adequately describe the reality they were meant to. Data are not valid just because we
have copied them correctly from a data base to a computer program. They are valid if they
accurately represent the real world. Invalid data can be either due to a correctable error (as when
we type the wrong number at our keyboard) or due to a conceptual mistake (as, for example, if

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we used people's voter registration as X party or Y party to represent which party they voted for
in an election actually won by the minority party).

Data processing is therefore the manipulation and transformation of data in to more meaningful
form (information). Think of data as a "raw material", it needs to be processed before it can be
turned into something useful hence the need for "data processing".

The way we humans process in order to perform a certain task undergoes three stages. The first
stage is to determine of decide the things to work upon. This can be considered as the input
stage. The second stage is to perform a certain process in order to accomplish the work we want
to do. This can be considered as the process stage. The third stage is the outcome or result of the
process stage. This can be considered as an output stage. As an example let’s say we want to
make tea. So the first thing we do is to get the ingredients and then make the tea by following a
certain steps and finally we get the tea. The input (things to work upon) stage is getting the
ingredients to make a cup of tea. The process stage is the steps we follow for making tea. The
output or the result is to have prepared tea. So in general every task we do follow this input-
process-output cycle. A computer is not an exception to this rule, i.e. it needs a certain input
carries out a process and produces the output.

Definition: Data are specific numerical or symbolic representations of facts about the world.

ii. Information

Information is a useful organization and selection of facts, not the number of facts available.
Information is how data are organized. It involves relationships among the represented facts.
Computers process information when they store, retrieve, or rearrange relationships among data.
For example, a telephone book contains data representing the names, addresses, and telephone
numbers of people in a region. The information in the phone book is the relationship between
name and phone number and the alphabetical order of the names. If you know someone's name,

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you can use that information to find his or her phone number. There is less information to help
you find the name of someone whose phone number you have -- you might have to look at each
item of numerical data before you could use the information relating name to number. A phone
book for the whole world would contain more data than a city directory, but it would not
necessarily have more information. Indeed, it might contain too much data for you to find the
information you want. If you are trying to reach the only Mr. Alebachew kebede’s family in your
town, it would not be helpful to see how many Alebachew’s people with that name have
telephones.

Definition: Information is a useful organization and selection of facts, not the number of
facts available.

A computerized phone book (such as those used by directory assistance operators) displays a
page when a person's last name is typed in. When the operator selects the desired number, the
computer plays a recording of the digits. Information is transmitted to the caller, but no new
information is produced. In order to make information, new connections must be made among
data. This can be done by physically rearranging the data, as when a person or a computer sorts
records into some kind of meaningful order. As another example, if we put data on people's
smoking habits together with data on lung cancer, we can produce information about the risks of
smoking.

iii. Knowledge

Knowledge involves the evaluation and understanding of information. It refers to the meaning of
information with respect to human interests and purposes. You could have a great deal of
information available to you, as for example in an encyclopedia, without understanding what it
meant or how to apply it to your own situation. In the telephone book example, your knowledge
includes an understanding that the names refer to people and the number is a code enabling you
to operate a machine to speak with them. Your understanding of how to use a telephone is a form
of knowledge. So is the scientific knowledge of how telephone circuits operate and the cultural
knowledge that you should call your mother on New Year’s Day.

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Definition: Knowledge is the evaluation and understanding of information.

The expression garbage in; garbage out applies to computerized information in several ways. If
the data are not valid, no amount of careful organization can make them represent reality. If the
data are valid, but our arrangement is at fault, then we will not have accurate information.
Finally, if we have valid data organized to provide excellent information about things of no
interest or value to us, we have not contributed positively to our knowledge.

Formal and Informal Knowledge

Written information is usually part of formal knowledge. This is knowledge that is consciously
known and communicable as a set of procedures. Informal or tacit knowledge is usually acquired
through experience, is often unconscious, and is frequently difficult to put into words. To
appreciate the difference, try writing a formal description of how to ride a bicycle. My attempt to
do this started with "Try to keep your center of gravity directly above the center of gravity of the
bicycle." Then I got stuck trying to describe how you locate your own center of gravity. To
appreciate the importance of tacit knowledge in information technology, dial into your least
favorite voice mail menu or online help system and ask yourself what it is that people who
answer telephones know that didn't get captured in the design.

iv. Wisdom

Wisdom is the ability to know when and how to apply knowledge. It is the ability to imagine the
consequences of our actions for ourselves and for others. It is a capacity for good judgment that
we acquire through experience. Just as we are only now beginning to understand the effects that
our industrial society has had on the world's environment, we sometimes acquire wisdom
through a long period of painful mistakes. Wise use of computers involves a careful study of
their context and consequences, not only their inner workings. Yet, because our present
knowledge about the effects of computers is incomplete, we may find in the future that some of

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our choices about computerization were unwise. Acquiring wisdom doesn't mean that we stop
making errors, only that we never stop learning from them.

Definition: Wisdom is the ability to know when and how to apply knowledge.

1.1.2. Information Hierarchies

Sometimes information is treated as data, for example each item in a library catalog might be a
whole book of information on some subject. A library's data retrieval system actually contains
information about information. Higher-level information or meta information, as information
about information is called, is a way of structuring data. Humans understand and interact with
the world using hierarchies of concepts that are also structured in this way. In this case higher
means more abstract, as in the sequence of concepts:
this dog (a particular object)
all dogs (a class of similar objects)
the word dog (a symbol representing a set of properties that defines a class of objects)
concrete nouns (a set of words defining properties of classes of objects)

High-level computer languages allow programmers to refer to complex sequences of machine

instructions or arrangements of data with commands that make sense in human conceptual terms.
Advanced information processing systems allow users to create useful structures of relationships
among different levels of information. At higher levels of abstraction much of the detail of data
is lost, but important information is preserved. A road map, for example, preserves relationships
among routes and distances between towns. It does not contain all the detail of an aerial
photograph, but is much easier to read.

To sum up, in order to gain a better understanding of informatics one needs to learn the
differences between data, information, knowledge, and wisdom. Data are simple symbols,

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isolated facts, and measurements. When such data are processed, put into a context, and
combined within a structure, information emerges. Information provides the answers to who,
what, when and where. When information is given meaning by interpreting it, that is, there is an
application of data and knowledge, information becomes knowledge. Knowledge answers the
how questions. Finally, wisdom is evaluated understanding and answers the why questions.

In general information hierarchy can be shown in the Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Information Hierarchy

1.1.3. Information Overload

The human capacity to read or hear the increased volume of words has not expanded
appreciably. Nor is it clear that all the words being produced are particularly relevant to us. We
are facing, according to many analysts, an information glut that threatens to overwhelm us.
Results from a research project on how developed nations process the news indicate that people
have several effective strategies for handling too much information. According to Doris Graber
(1984) we pay full attention to only about 20% of news we read and less than 10% of TV news.
Our selection schemes ignore redundant information, accepting what is important to our own

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way of thinking. While details are remembered haphazardly, our fund of general knowledge
grows. By organizing data into information and information into knowledge, we are able to
reduce the volume of facts with which we are confronted.

Definition: an information surplus that threatens to overwhelm us.

1.1.4. Digital Divide

Interaction between human and computers has greatly increased as we embark on the twenty-
first century. The ability to access computers and the internet has become increasingly important
to completely immerse oneself in the economic, political, and social aspects of of the world.
However, not everyone has access to this technology. The idea of the "digital divide" refers to
the growing gap between the underprivileged members of society, especially the poor, rural,
elderly, and handicapped portion of the population who do not have access to computers or the
internet; and the wealthy, and middle-class, living in urban and suburban areas who have access.
In short, Digital Divide is the term used to describe the disparity (gap) in computer access and
use between various social, economic, and racial groups around the world, pictorially digital
divide is shown below:

Fig. 1.2. Definition of digital divide

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Definition: the growing gap between the portion of the population who has access and do not
have access to computers or the internet.

1.2. Definition of Computer

A Computer can be defined as an electronic device that is capable of accepting data in some
prescribed form as an input, processing the data according to pre-established instructions or
procedures, providing the desired information in a suitable output format and medium and
storing data, instruction, and information (processed data) for further and future use. From this
definition, the following elements can be listed out.

Definition: A computer is an electronic data processing device or machine that can perform
variety of operations in accordance with a set of instructions called program.

A. A Computer Accepts Input

Computer input is whatever is put into a computer system. The word “input” is also a verb that
means to feed information into a computer. Examples of the kinds of input a computer can
process include the words and symbols in a document, numbers for a calculation, pictures, audio
signals from a microphone, and instructions for completing a process.
An input device gathers and translates input into a form that the computer can process. As a
computer user, you will probably use the keyboard as your main input device.

B. A Computer Processes Data

Data refers to the symbols that represent facts and ideas. Computer manipulates data in many
ways, and we call this manipulation “processing”. Some of the ways that a computer can process
data include performing calculations, sorting list of words or numbers, etc. In the context of

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computers, then, we can define a “process” as a systematic series of actions that a computer uses
to manipulate data. A computer process data in a device called the central processing unit (CPU)
which we will see in more detail later.

C. A Computer Stores Data

A computer must store data so that it will be available for processing. Computer typically has
more than one location for storing data, depending on how the data is being used. The computer
puts data in one place while it is waiting to be processed and in another place when it is not
needed for immediate processing. Memory is an area of a computer that holds data that is
waiting to be processed. Storage is the area where data can be left on a permanent basis while it
is not needed for processing.

D. A Computer Produces Output

Computer output is the results produced by a computer. The word “output” is also a verb that
means the process of producing output. Some examples a computer output include reports,
documents, music, graph, and pictures. An output device displays, prints or transmits the result
of processing.

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Fig. 1.3 helps you to make sure that you understand fundamental computer functions and the
devices that help the computer accomplish each function.

1.2.1. Historical Development of Computers and Generations

[Link]. Evolution of Computers

The earliest device that qualifies as a digital computer is the “abacus” also known as “Soroban”.
This device permits the users to represent numbers by the position of beads on a rack. Simple
addition and subtraction can be carried out rapidly and efficiently by positioning the beads
appropriately. Although, the abacus was invented around 600 B.C., it is interesting to note that it
is still used in the Far East and its users can calculate at amazing speed.

Another manual calculating device was John Napier’s bone or cardboard multiplication
calculator. The first mechanical adding machine was invented by Blaise Pascal in 1642. Later in
the year 1671, Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz of Germany invented the first calculator for
multiplication. Keyboard machines originated in the United States around 1880 and are
extensively used even today. Around this period only, Herman Hollerith came up with the

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concept of punched cards, which were extensively used as input media in computers even in late
1970s.

Charles Babbage, a nineteenth century Professor a Cambridge University, is considered to be the

father of modern digital computers. This period, mathematical and statistical tables were
prepared by a group of clerks. There were lots of human errors. Error checking took lot of time
for him. So he started thinking of building a machine, which could compute with error free. In
this process, Babbage designed a “Difference Engine” in the year 1822 which could produce
reliable tables. In 1842, Babbage came up with another new idea of Analytical Engine that was
intended to be completely automatic. It was to be capable of performing 60 additions per minute.
Unfortunately, he was unable to produce a working model of this machine mainly because the
precision engineering required to manufacture the machine was not available during that period.
However, his efforts established a number of principles, which paved way for digital computers.
Some of the early computers.

1. The Mark I Computer (1937-44) Also known as Automatic Sequence Controlled

calculator, this was first fully automatic calculating machine.
2. The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939-42). This electronic machine was developed by Dr.
john Atanasoff to sove certain mathematical equations. This had 45 vacuum tubes.
3. The first large scale electronic computer, called the Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer (ENIAC) became operational in 1946. This computer had approximately
18,000 electronic vacuum tubes. This tubes are like light bulbs that controlled flow of
electric current. The ENIAC, which weighed 30 tons and occupied about 1500 square
foot of floor space.
4. The EDVAC (1946-52). The operation of ENIAC was seriously handicapped by the
wiring board. This peoblwm was later overcome by the new concept of “stored program”
developed by Dr. John Von Neumann. The basic idea behind stored program is that a
sequence of instruction as well as data can be stored in the memory of the computer for
the purpose of automatically directing the flow of operations. The electronic Discrete
Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) was designed on stored program concept.

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5. The EDSAC (1947-49) Almost simultaneously with EDVQAC of U.S.A the Britishers
developed the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC). The machine
executed its first program in May 1949. in this machine, addition operation was
accomplished in 1500 microseconds, multiplication operation in 4000 microseconds. This
was developed by a group of scientists headed by Prof. Maurice Wilkes at the Cambridge
University mathematical Laboratory.
6. Manchestor Mark I (1948) A small experimental machine based on the stored program
concept. Its storage capacity was only 32 words each of 31 binary digits.
7. The UNIVAC I (1951) The Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) was the first
digital computer.

From that time onwards the computers were developed and produced. Computer’s efficiency and
functionality has been enhanced since then. This development process can be classified as
generations of computers. Different generations have different types of computers.

[Link]. Generations of Computers

“Generation” in computer talk is a step in technology. The major characteristics that distinguish
the various generations are the following:-

 Dominant type of electronic circuit elements used.

 Major Secondary storage Medias.
 Computer languages used.
 Type or characteristics of operating system used.
 Memory access time.

First Generation Electronic computers (1942-1955)

 Vacuum tubes were used as the switching devices. The first general purpose
programmable electronic computer was the Electronic Numerical Integrator and

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Computer (ENIAC), built by J. Presper Eckert and John V. Mauchly at the University of
Pennsylvania.

 Through the use of a memory that was large enough to hold both instructions and data,
and using the program stored in memory to control the order of arithmetic operations,
another first generation computer, EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer), was
able to run orders of magnitude faster than ENIAC.

 The memory of these computers was constructed using electromagnetic relays and all
data and instructions were fed into the system from punched cards.

 The instructions were written in machine language and assembly language, the latter only
in the 1950s.

Second Generation Electronic computers (1955-1964)

 Transistors (invented around 1952) were used as the switching devices. Transistors are
much smaller in size, more rugged, more reliable, faster and consume less power than their
vacuum tube counter-parts. The second-generation computers were thus more powerful,
more reliable, less expensive, smaller, and cooler to operate than the first-generation
computers.

 The memory of the second-generation computers was composed of magnetic cores.

Magnetic cores were small rings made of ferrite, which could be magnetized, in either
clockwise or anti-clockwise direction.

 High-level programming languages like FORTRAN, COBOL, ALGOL, and SNOBOL

were developed, which were easier to understand and work with than assembly and
machine languages.

Third Generation Electronic computers (1964-1975)

 Around 1964 Integrated Circuits (ICs) made their appearance and the third-generation
computers were constructed around these ICs. ICs are circuits consisting of several
electronic components like transistors, resistors, and capacitors grown on a single chip of
silicon eliminating wired interconnection between components. ICs were much smaller,

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less expensive to produce, more rugged and reliable, faster in operation, dissipated less
heat, and consumed much less power than circuits built by wiring electronic components.
The third-generation computers were thus more powerful, more reliable, less expensive,
smaller, and cooler to operate than the second-generation computers.

 Parallel advancements in storage technologies allowed the construction of larger magnetic

cores based memory, and larger capacity magnetic disks and magnetic tapes. Third-
generation computers typically had a few megabytes (< 5 MB) of main memory and
magnetic disks capable of storing a few tens of megabytes of data per disk drive.

 Efforts were made to standardize some of the existing high-level programming languages
like FORTRAN IV and COBOL 68. Programs written with these languages were thus able
to run on any computer that has these compilers. Other high-level programming languages
like PL/1, PASCAL and BASIC were also introduced in this generation.

Fourth Generation Electronic computers (1975-1989)

 The average number of electronic components packed on a silicon doubled each year after
1965. The progress soon led to the era of large scale integration (LSI) with over 30000
electronic components integrated on a single chip, followed by very large-scale
integration (VLSI) when it was possible to integrate about one million electronic
components on a single chip. This progress led to a dramatic development – the creation of
a microprocessor. A microprocessor contains all the circuits needed to perform arithmetic
and logic operations as well as control functions, the core of all computers, on a single
chip. Hence it became possible to build a complete computer with a microprocessor, a few
additional primary storage chips, and other support circuitry. It started a new social
revolution – the Personal Computer (PC) revolution.
 Magnetic core memories were replaced by semiconductor memories, with very fast access
time. Hard disks also became cheaper, smaller in size, and larger in capacity and thus
became the standard in-built secondary storage device for all types of computer systems.
Floppy disks also became very popular as a portable medium for moving programs and
data from one computer system to another.

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 The fourth-generation also saw the advent of supercomputers based on parallel vector
processing and symmetric multiprocessing technologies.
 Fourth-generation period also saw the spread of high-speed computer networking. LAN
and WAN became popular for connecting computers.
 Operating systems like MS-DOS and Windows made their appearance in this generation.
Several new PC-based application packages like word processors, spreadsheets and others
were developed during this generation. In the area of large-scale computers,
multiprocessing operating systems and concurrent programming languages were popular
technological developments. The UNIX operating system also became very popular for
use on large-scale systems. Some other software technologies that became popular during
the fourth-generation period are C programming language, object-oriented software
design, and object-oriented programming.

Fifth Generation Electronic computers (1989 – Present)

 The fifth Generation was characterized by VLSI technology being replaced by ULSI
(Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, with microprocessor chips having ten million
electronic components. In fact, the speed of microprocessor and size of main memory and
hard disk doubled almost every eighteen months. The result was that many of the features
found in the CPUs of large mainframe systems of the third and fourth generations became
part of the microprocessor architecture in the fifth generation. More compact and more
powerful computers are being introduced almost every year at more or less the same price
or even cheaper.
 The size of main memory and hard disk storage has increased several folds. Memory size
of 256 MB to 4 GB and hard disk sizes of the order of 100 GB are common. RAID
(Redundant Array of Independent Disks) technology has made it possible to configure a
bunch of disks as a single hard disk with a total size of a few hundred gigabytes. Optical
disks (CD-ROMS, DVDs) also emerged as a popular portable mass storage media.
 This generation also saw more powerful supercomputers based on parallel processing
technology.

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 Communication technologies became faster day-by-day and more and more and more and
more computers got networked together, resulting in the Internet.
 In the area of operating systems, some of the concepts that gained popularity during the
fifth-generation include micro kernels (operating systems being modeled and designed in a
modular fashion), multithreading (a popular way to improve application performance
through parallelism), and distributed operating systems (an operating system for a set of
computers networked together with the aim of making the multiple computers of the
system appear as a single large virtual system to its users).
 In the area of programming languages, some of the concepts that gained popularity during
the fifth-generation include JAVA programming language, and parallel programming
libraries like MPI (Message Passing Interface) and VPM (Parallel Virtual Machine).

The characteristics that appeared in each generation are summarized in the following table:-

Generation Time Circuit Storage Languages Operating Access Time

Elements Devices Systems
First 1950s Vacuum Tubes Punched Machine Operator 1 Millisecond
Cards &Assembly controlled
Second 1959- Discrete Magnetic COBOL Batch 10Microseconds
1964 transistors tape FORTRAN
Third 1965- IC Magnetic Structured Interactive 1nanoseconds
1970 disk language
Fourth Late VLSI Mass Applications Virtual 100nanoseconds
1970s Storage oriented

[Link]. Three directions of Computer Development

Smaller Size: The ENIAC’s vacuum tubes where replaced by transistors. A transistor is a small
device used as a gateway to transfer electrical signals along predetermined paths. The next step
was the development of tiny integrated circuits. ICs are entire collections of electrical circuits or

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pathways etched on tiny squares of silicon half the size of the thumbnail. Silicon is a natural
element found in sand that is purified to form the base material for making computer processing
devices.

More Power: In turn, miniaturization of hardware components allowed computer makers to

cram more power into their machines providing faster processing speeds and more data storage
capacity.

Less Expense: The miniaturized processor in a personal desktop computer performs the same
sort of calculations once performed by a computer that filled an entire room. However the
processor costs only a fraction of what they were 15 years ago.

1.2.2. Characteristics and Limitations of Computers

[Link]. Characteristics of Computers

The characteristics of a computer show the capability and the potential of the computer for
processing data. This saves time, space, money, labors etc. And they answer the questions why
computers are used? Why have they become so popular? Specifically, characteristics of
computes are discussed below.

Automatic
Computers are automatic; once started on a job, they carry on until the job is finished, normally
without any human intervention.

Speed
The ability of the computers to carry out their instructions in a very short period of time is one of
the main reasons for their popularity. Computers can perform within a matter of seconds or
minutes tasks that would be impossible for a person to complete by hand in lifetime.

Its speed is measured by the amount of time it took to perform or carry out a basic operation.
And its speed measured in terms of micro second (10-6 one millionths), nano second (10-9 one

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billionths), and Pico second (10-12 one trillionths). Hence a computer with speed 1 microsecond
can perform 1 million instructions in just 1 second. (For example in one second this computer
can perform the following tasks:
 Compute the grade point average for 3000 students
 Calculate the total value of all books used by students in a university

Accuracy
Now a days computers are being used life-and-death situations (For example, jet pilots rely on
computer computations for guidance, Hospitals rely on patient-monitoring systems in critical –
care units) which needs almost hundred percent accuracy. From this we can understand that
computer is accurate and consistent. Unless there is an error in the input data or unreliable
program the computer processes with a very accurate.

Capacity
The ability of computers to store and process vast amounts of data continues to grow. A
computer operating at 200 MHz can move data from one location to another at a rate excess of
1.2 billions characters (symbols) per second.

Durability and Reliability

Computers are durable and extremely reliable devices. They can operate error-free over long
periods of time.

Versatility
Versatility is one of the most wonderful things about the computer. A computer is capable of
performing almost any task provided that the task can be reduced to a series of logical steps.
Because of technological advancements in the computer industry, most computers today are
considered to be general-purpose computers That is both their computation and input/output
processing capabilities are such that they can be used for almost any type of application. For
example, the same computer that is used to handle engineering company’s mathematics, and
design computations can also be efficiently used by the company to track inventory, process

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payroll, project earnings, and fulfill all its reporting needs.

Today’s computers are versatile in what they can do; computers and their components part being
used in application never before envisioned. For example; in home appliances (washing
machines, ovens) home entertainment centers, traffic lights, automobiles, banking, assembly
plants, space probes, art, music, education, hospitals, and agriculture, to name few. The
versatility of the computers and its use in a wide array of application are limited only by the
imagination of the human mind.

Power of Remembering
A computer can store and recall huge amount of information because of its secondary storage
capability.

No IQ
A computer is not a magical device. It can only perform tasks that a human being can. The
difference is that it performs these tasks with unthinkable speed and accuracy. It possesses no
intelligence of its own. Its IQ is zero. It has to be told what to do and in what sequence. Hence,
only the user can determine what tasks a computer will perform.

No Feelings
Computers are devoid of emotion. They have no feelings and no instinct because they are
machines. Computers cannot make judgments on their own. Their judgment is based on the
instructions given to them in the form of programs that are written by us.

[Link]. Limitation of Computers

 Computers can perform tasks that are only programmed to do.

 Computers operate on data that are provided by users.
 Computers cannot give any conclusion without going through immediate instructions.

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 Computers have limited use in qualitative conditions

 Computers require regular checking.

1.2.3. Types of Computers

Depending on their task or purpose computers can be categorized into two types; general purpose
and special purpose computers.

General purpose computers may be applied to solve any solvable problem. These computers are
directed by a program. Programs are written by humans. One program can be replaced by
another, thus changing the use of the machine. The personal computers (PCs) that we use here
are good examples of general purpose computers.

Special Purpose computers are machines of more limited capabilities and they are designed for a
particular purpose or task. Calculators can be taken as an example.

Based on their size and performance, computers can be classified in five types: microcomputers,
workstations, minicomputers, mainframe computers and super computers.

 Supercomputers are the most powerful and expensive computers; they are used for
problems requiring complex calculations. A supercomputer is generally characterized as
being the fastest, most powerful, and most expensive computer. Super computers are
largely used by research organizations, military defense systems, national weather
forecasting agencies, large corporations, aircraft manufacturer, etc. Supercomputers are
powerful computers, consist of several processors running together thereby making them
immensely faster and powerful. Their computing capability equal to that of 40,000
microcomputers. They are used in applications like nuclear science research, metrology,
seismology, aerodynamic modeling etc. The CRAY and CYBER are typical examples of
the supercomputers.

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 Mainframe computers are mainly found in large organizations. They can serve hundreds
or thousands of users, handling massive amounts of input, output and storage. They are
used as e-commerce servers handling transactions over the Internet. To give some
example, mainframes can handle the processing of thousands of customer inquiries,
employee paychecks, student registrations, sale transactions, and inventory changes.
Mainframe computers are designed to handle huge volumes of data and information.
They are multi-user, multiprocessor and have large storage capacity and memory
compared to minicomputers.

 Minicomputers more properly called medium-sized computers; are smaller, slower and
less expensive than mainframes. Minis perform many of the tasks that a mainframe can,
but on a reduced scale. They can support a network of user terminals, but not as many as
mainframes can. They may be used as network servers and Internet servers. They are
popularly used in scientific laboratories, research centers, universities and colleges,
engineering firms, industrial process monitoring and control etc. Minicomputers are more
powerful computers than microcomputers in terms of processing power and capabilities.
They are multi-user systems where many users simultaneously work on the system.

 Workstations are powerful single-user computers used for tasks that require a great deal
of number-crunching power, such as product design and computer animation. They are
often used as network and Internet servers. Work stations were powerful sophisticated
machines that fit on a desk, cost much and were used mainly by engineers and scientists
for technical purposes.

 Microcomputers, or Personal computers, are meant for personal or private use.

Microcomputers come in a variety of sizes and shapes for a variety of purposes. Basically
they can be grouped into three: Laptop, Palmtop and Desktop computers. Laptop
computers are smaller versions of microcomputers about the size of a briefcase designed
for portability. Palmtop computer is the smallest microcomputer that is about the same
size as a pocket calculator. Desktop computer is the most widely used type of personal

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computer (microcomputers). Microcomputers are normally single-user systems designed

for performing basic operations like educational, training, small business applications,
playing games etc. These are mainly used in offices, homes, schools, shops, stores etc.

Depending on the type of data they process computers can be categorized into two types; analog
and digital computers.

Analog computers process data that vary continuously with time, such as variations in
temperature, speed, chemical composition of petroleum products, or current flowing through a
conductor. Analog computers operate by measuring. They deal with continuous variable. They
do not compute directly with numbers, rather, they operate by measuring physical magnitude
such as pressure temperature, voltage, current and etc. Generally, they are computers designed
for special purpose. E.g. Thermometer, voltmeter, speedometer

Digital computers process digital data. All the PCs currently in wide use are digital computers.
Digital computers deal with discrete variables. They operate by counting rather than measuring.
They operate directly upon numbers (or digits) that represent numbers, letters, or other special
symbols. Digital computer is a computing device in which data is represented by discrete
numerical quantities. It is represented by discrete voltage states (1s and 0s). They have very high
accuracy and speed than analog ones. E.g. Personal Computers

1.2.4. Application of Computers

Why we use Computers? The following are some of the capability of Computers, which are
reasons to use Computers.

 Store and process large amount of information with high speed and accuracy
 Transmit information across continents via communication channels
 Simulate events
 Perform complex mathematical computations and make comparisons
 Monitor ongoing industrial operations
 Perform repetitive processes with great ease, speed, and reliability

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Therefore, computers are applicable for any functions or process that requires these abilities. The
main areas of computer applications can be listed as follows:

Learning Aids

Example: learning toys, programs range from simple arithmetic to calculus, from English
grammar to creative writing and foreign language, and from basic graphics to engineering design
models.

Entertainment

Examples: Games

Commercial or Business Applications

Computers are needed to perform business operations that require handling large amounts of
data. Several computer applications are available to assist business in working with large
volumes of data. Examples are:
 Text processing
 Accounting and Finance management
 Inventory control
 Database management
 Statistical analysis

Scientific, Engineering and Research Applications

This is using computers for scientific research, complex mathematical calculations, design work,
and analysis and control of physical systems. Examples are:
 Space technology
 Meteorological observatory systems
 Astronomical investigations
 Design of machines and
 Control of manufacturing process

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Information Utilities

Information utilities companies use large computers that store huge amount of information about
many different subjects. These computer systems and their vast amount of data are available for
personal use. For example: information utilities can allow a computer user to read the daily
news, research published works, send a letter to a friend, play games, make airline reservations,
obtain the latest stock market quotations, and perform many other activities. Example: Internet.
Ethiopian airline is a member of World-Wide reservation system called Gabriel system.
Facilities include booking of passengers, hotel reservation for the travelers and Massage
correspondence with all stations.

Electronic Banking and Service

Example: Teller Machine (customers are issued cards that permit them to use other banks teller
machine’s). Online banking (A bank customer can use his/ her computer to check account
balances, transfer funds, pay bills). Shopping from Home (Individual may now shop by computer
in the comfort of their home).

Household Control
A growing number of the newer houses hold devices are computers controlled. For example:
Security systems, refrigerators, microwave ovens, washers, stereos, and televisions. This
computer controlled home security system monitors movements, broken glass, unlawful entry
without a security code, and so on, and alerts the local police department.

Weather and Environment

Computer equipment may show temperature ranges, precipitation levels and wind flow and can
used in weather forecasting. Computer can also help in overcoming environmental hazards.

Transportation
Computers have affected almost every kind of transportation. Many aircraft can fly under the
control of the computer; in this situation, the captain simply serves as a manger by telling the

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computer what to do. In Cars, computers have provided functional controls such as spark and
fuel control.

Medical and Health Care

Computers have long been used by hospitals for routine record keeping. Today, however, many
people owe their lives to the computer. Computers are used in hospitals as sensors (device that
detect changes in blood pressure, heart rate, temperature), testing (scan the body and provide 3-D
figure), patient treatment.

Routine and Dangerous Tasks

Computers are used in routine tasks. And they can perform task in environments too dangerous
for human workers.

Consultant (Expert System)

An Expert system is a computer program, which can solve problems from a specific knowledge
base. These systems don't replace expert humans because the knowledge base of expert system is
given from the skilled specialist. Example: MYCIN (a medical diagnostic program by using
sophisticated decision making process).

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