Physics made simple The Hills

By Master S. Phiri +265 881 807 285

MSCE PHYSICS

SUMMARISED LESSON NOTES

NEW EDITION
BY
MASTER S. PHIRI

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MSCE PHYSICS
FORM 4
1. Rate of chemical reaction………………………..1
2. Acids and Bases………………………………….5
3. Redox Reaction…………………………………..14
4. Electrolysis……………………………………….22
5. Isomerism………………………………………...32
6. Polymerization……………………………………38
7. Water……………………………………………...43
8. Greenhouse Gases and the Ozone layer…………..48
Waste Management……………………………….54

Syllabus based CHAMBO GIRLS PVT SEC SCHOOL

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TOPIC:1 THERMAL EXPANSION

 Temperature is the measure of the hotness or coldness of a substance or an object. It varies

in different objects.
 Temperature determines the amount of heat energy which each molecule of an object
possesses.

Temperature and Heat

 Heat is the measure of the total internal energy contained in a body
 Temperature is the measure of the level of heat energy (how hot or cold a body is)
 Heat energy always flow from high to low temperature

Principle of conservation of heat

 Heat lost by a hot object = heat gained by a cold object
 Decrease in temperature of hot object = increase in temperature of a cold object

Thermal expansion of matter

 Matter expands when heated and contracts when cooled. The amount of expansion or
contraction depends on
 Size of the object
 Type of substance/material it is made of
 The temperature change of the substance
Expansion of solids
 Solids expand when heated and contracts when cooled. Different solids expand with different
amount.
 According to kinetic theory, molecules of solids vibrate and push each other apart when
heated hence expansion. When cooled molecules vibrate slowly and move close hence
contraction.

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Consider iron metal and copper metal welded together (bimetallic strip)

Copper

Iron

 When heated copper expands more than iron which allows the strip to bend with copper on
the outside. This shows that different solids expand with different amount when heated.

Expansion of liquids
 When liquid is heated the motion of molecules increase and spread further apart occupying
greater volume.
 Liquids expand more than solids. Different liquids have different thermal expansion.
Consider water paraffin and cooking oil

Paraffin

Water Hot water

Cooking oil

 The liquid level will rise with different amount because they have different rate of expansion.

Expansion of gases
 When gas is heated in a container, molecules move fast. They collide with each other and
move further apart. The gas expands and volume increases.
 Gases expand much more than solids for a given temperature rise because gas particles move
more freely.
Consider a balloon fitted tightly into a mouth of a flask and heated in a bath of hot water.

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 As time goes the ballon expands though no more air particles are added. This shows that gas
expands when heated.
 When egual volumes of various gases are heated equally, they expand or contract at the same
rate.

Particle behaviour and expansion

 when substance is heated, its temperature rise which increases the average kinetic energy of
its particle. Particles move further apart, increasing the volume(expands)
 when a substance is cooled, its temperature decreases which decreases the kinetic energy of its
particle. Particles move closer to each other and decreases volume (contraction)

Expansion of water

 unlike most other liquid, water does not always expands when heated and contracts when it is
cooled.
 At 40 c water contracts (normal) but between 4 0 c and 00 c it expands surprisingly. Its density is
reduced, that’s why ice floats on liquid water. This is unusual expansion of water.

1, 0005

1, 0004
Volume
(cm3) 1, 0003

1, 0002

1, 0001

1, 0000
2 4 6 8 10 Temp. 0 C

Effects of unusual expansion of water

a) It causes bursting of pipes in very cold weather

b) It causes breaking of bottle
- When water is in pipe or bottle, make sure that there is room for expansion.

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c) It causes breaking of the rocks. When rock is filled with water, the water on the surface
freezes first. If the temperature falls low enough to freeze the whole of the water, the force of
the expansion causes rock to splits.
d) Causes weathering of soil. In winter ground is saturated with water and water freezes. There is
a large expansion which forces the soil apart.
e) Freezing pond. When water freezes, ice floats on top forming a layer. This affects aquatic
animals.

Effects and application of thermal expansion

a) Separating stuck glass tumblers
- When glass tumblers are stuck, fill the top glass with a little ice and put the bottom
tumbler into a container of warm water. After some minutes the top glass will contract a
little, while the bottom glass will expand alittle then it can easily be separated.
b) Rail way line gap. The gap allows expansion of metals
c) Tooth filling. When filing tooth consider rate of expansion of tooth and filling. If the
expansion rate is different they will experience toothache espeacially when drinking a hot
drink.
d) Removing tightly screwd bottle cover
- A bottle screw on metal cap can be opened by holding it under hot water. The hot water
makes the bottle top to expand more than glass bottle neck
e) Gaps or rollers in bridges
f) Gaps in fences
g) Metal roofing have there ends placed one on top of other to allow for expansion
h) Shrink fitting
- This is used to produce a tight fit between two pieces of metal such as an axle and a wheel

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- The axle which is slightly larger than the the hole on the wheel is dipped in cold liquid
nitrogen (-2000 c).
- The axle contracts when it cools and fits exactly into the wheel. Upon regaining the
normal temperature it expands and produces a tight fit.
i) Riveting metal plates
- This is the process of fixing two plates together using riverts. A rivet is placed in a rivet
hole and the end is hammered flat. On cooling, the rivert contracts and pulls the plates
together tightly.

j) Bimetalic strip. Is made of two equal leghth of different metal riverted together i.e. copper &
iron. When heated, copper expands more than iron. The strip bends towards that expands less.
 Uses of bimetalic strip
a) Fire alarm

 When there is fire, the heat from the fire makes the bimetalic strip bend and complete
the circuit ringing the alarm bell.
b) A thermostat in an iron
 A thermostat keeps the temperature of the an appliance [Link] for example, the
iron reaches the required temperature, the strip bends and breaks the circuit at the
contact and switches off the heater. After cooling a little the strip remakes contact and
turns the heater.

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Questions
1. Explain the difference between heat and temperature.
2. Explain the following in terms of particle behaviours
a) a substance expands when heated
b) a substance contracts when cooled
3. Discus how the following practical application of thermal explansion take place
a) shrink fitting
b) riverting
4. Identify parts of a bicycle and car where shrink fitting and riverting was used.
5. Explain why
a) Telephone wires are hung up slack in the hot summer weather
b) A bimetallic strip bends when heated
c) Fances are built with gaps
d) Concrate roads are lais in sections with soft pich between them
6. Describe a simple experiment to demostrate that for the same temperature change
oxygen and nitrogen gases expand and contracts by the same amount
7. The emperature of the water in an electric geyser can be controlled by thermostat
which switches an electic heater on and off
a) Draw a well labeled diagram of a circuit used.
b) Explain how the circuit diagram works to control the temperature of the water in
the geyser.
8. Explain how the expansion of water is different from that of most other liquids

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TOPIC :2 NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION

 Sir Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727) studies the motion of objects and came up with three laws of
motion.

Newtons First Law of Motion

 States that “a body at rest remain at rest and an object moving at uniform motion continues its
motion unless external force is applied to it”.
 This implies that without external when you put an object (book) on a desk it will remain
there and when a body is set in motion (in straight line) would not stop but continous to move
forever.
 The force can be friction force or air resistance.

Examples of the first law of motion

a) When a car suddenly stops, passangers lurch forward in an attemp to contineu

b) A stone at rest
c) A pilot jumping from spacecraft will contineu to travel at the same speed and direction
like the spacecraft.

Newtons Second Law of Motion

 States that force is directly proportional to the products of mass and acceleration.
Mathematically F α ma
F = kma where k is constant. But k = 1
then F = ma where F = Force in newtons (N)
m = mass (kg)
a = acceleration (m/s2 )
but a = V – U
t
therefore F = m (V – U)
t

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Example

1. A body of mass 15kg was given a push that causes the body to accelerate by 3 m/s 2 . What is the
magnitude of the push.
Solution
Given: Mass (m) = 15k, Acceleration (a) = 3m/s2, Force = ?
F = ma
F = (15 x 3) N
= 45 N
2. A force of 400N is pulling a bag of 80kg and overcomes a constant friction force of 80N.
calculate the acceleration of the bag
Solution
Given: resultant force (F) = 400 – 80)N, mass(m) = 80 kg,
= 320 N acceleration (a) = ?
F = ma
a = F/m
= 320/80
= 4m/s

?? 1. An object of mass 800g is pushed and accelerates from rest to 40m/s in 10 seconds.
Calculate a) its acceleration
b) the size of the pushing force

2. Aforce of 1200kg travelling at 72km/h is brought to rest in 4s. find

a) the average deceleration

b) the average braking force

Application of Newtons Second Law of Motion

1. Seat belts stretch slowly. This reduces the force that stops you when the car stops suddenly.
2. The front and the back of cars are collapsible (have crumple zones). This reduces the force
used to stop the car during a crush so that the passengers are not injured with large forces.
3. Crush helmets are filled with soft foam to protect the head during collision.

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4. When jumping from walls you should bend your knees before hitting the ground in order to
make the time the ground apples a force to stop you longer.

Newton Third Law of Motion

 It states that “for every force acting on a body there is equal
and opposite force of reaction acting on it.”
 This means that if a body A exerts a force on body B, then
body B will also exert equal but opposite force to body A.
 This law says that force always occur in pairs as a result of
interaction between two objects (action and reaction force).

Application of Newtons Third Law

1. A person rowing on a boat

 When a person pushes the paddle backwards , the water exerts equal but opposite force
on the paddle. This forces causes the boat to move forward since the friction force
between the boat and water is negligible. As a result the backward and forward force are
equal.
2. Stepping/jumping from a boat
 The person pushes the boat backwards, the boat pushes the person forwards with equal
force. The boat it self now move backward (friction force is negligible). The person and
the boat eill move in opposite direction.
3. When a person walk. The earth pushes in response to persons push. The friction force between
persons shoe and the ground is assential for forward motion.
4. Motor cars are able to move along a road because the reaction of the road pushes the car along
in response to the action of the wheels pushing on the road.

Inertia
 The tendancy of a body to remain at rest or if moving to continue its motion in a straight line
is describe as inertia. Newton first law is also called law of inertia.

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 Inertia is the resistance an object has to a change in its state of motion (ability of a body to
stay as it is).

Examples of inertia

a) A car that stops suddenly occupant lurch forward

b) When standing in a bus that moves suddenly
 Inertia depends on mass. The bigger the mass the more the inertia and vice versa. This means
mass of an object is a measure of inertia.

Momentum
 Momentum of a body is the product of mass and velocity.
Momentum (kgm/s) = mass x velocity
ρ = m x v where ρ = momentum (khm/s)
V = velocity (m/s)
M = mass (kg)
Example

An object of mass 120 kg falls from a height of 5m above the ground in 2 seconds. Calculate the
linear momentum of the object

Solution

Given: mass(m) = 120kg, distance (d) = 5m, time(t) = 2s, ρ=?

Momentum(ρ) = m x v but v = d/t

V = 5m/2s
V = 2.5m/s
ρ = mxv
ρ = 120kg x 2.5 m/s
ρ = 300kgm/s

Law of conservation of linear momentum

 It states that when two or more objects acts on each other, their total momentum remains
constant provided no external force are acting on them.

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 Total momentum before collision = total momentum afster collision

Initial momentum = final momentum (m1 v1 = m2 v2 )

m1 v1 + m2 m2 = (m1 + m2 )v
 Consider two balls moving in opposite direction and they move together after impact.

5kg 10m/s
7m/s 10kg

before collision

after collision

Momentum of ball 1 = m1 x v1 momentum of ball 2 = m2 x v2

= (10 x 5 ) = 7 x 10
= 50kgm/s = 70kgm/s
To find final velocity we use law of conservation of momentum
m1 v1 + m2 m2 = (m1 + m2 )v
(5 x 10) + ( 10 x -7) = (5 + 7)v
50 – 70 = 15v
V = -1.33m/s

Example

A girl of mass 60kg jumps (to the right) with a horizontal velocity of 5m/s on a stationary skateboard
of mass 3kg. what is the final velocity.

Solution
Given: m1 = 60m, m2 = 3m, v1 = 5m/s, v2 = 0, v = ?
m1 v1 + m2 v2 = (m1 + m2 )v
(60 x 5) + (3 x 0) = (60 + 3)v
300kgm/s = 63v
V = 4.76m/s

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Questions
1. Derive a formula to relate force and the rate of change in momentum
2. A truck of mass 60kg with a velocity of 3m/s collides and couple with a stationary
truck of mass 30kg. the two move off together with the same velocity. Find final
velocity
3. A 12kg mass travelling to the right at 4m/s collides with a 4kg mass travelling to
the left at 4m/s. calculate the final velocity.
4. Discus the relationship between force, mass and acceleration of an object
5. A box of mass 20kg was [Link] the acceleration of the box is 2.5 m/s 2, calculat the
magnitude of the push
6. A resultant force of 50N act on a mass of 0.60 kg starting from rest. find
a) The acceleration in m/s 2
b) The final velocity after 10s
c) The distance moved in m

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Topic:3 Friction Force

 Friction force is a force that opposes the motion of an object in a medium (solid, liquide or
gases).
 Friction force always act opposite to the direction of the
pulling force and act only when there is a motion (no
motion no friction).
 There are two types of frictional force
a) Solid friction: frictional force experienced when solid
state object slid over another solid object i.e. pulling
or pushing a book on a table
b) Fluid friction: friction force when object moves in liqud or gas.
 The maximum value of friction force between two surface is static/limiting frictional force.
occur when two surface are on the point of sliding over each other
 The value of frictional force when one surface slides over one another at constant speed is
sliding/dynamic frictional force. It is slightly less than static.
 The ratio of static or sliding force (F) to the normal force is a coefficient of static and sliding
friction.
μ = F/N where μ = coefficient of friction force
F = μN F = static or sliding friction (N)
N = normal force pressing surface together (N)

Example

A horizontal force of 15N is necessary to just hold a block stationary against a wall. The coeeffient of
friction netween the block and the wall is 0.5. calculate the weight of the block

Solution

Given : F = 15N μ = 0.5 N(weight) = ?

F = μN N = F/μ

= 15/0. N = 30N

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?? If a brick weighing 20N is placed on a floor having coefficient of friction between it and the floor
of 0.3. what is the maximum force of friction available at the point of contact between the brick and
floor.

Application of Frictional Force

1. Almost all fastening devices rely on frictional forces to kepthem in place once secured, e.g.
screws, nails, nuts, clips and clamps
2. Satisfactory operetion of brakes and crutches rely on frictional forces being present

TERMINAL VELOCITY

 Terminal velocityis the maximum constant velocity reached by an object falling through a
vaccum and fluid (gas or liquid).

Falling in a vacuum (free fall)

 When object are falling in a vacuum they do not experience opposing force (frictional).
 All objects have the same motion/acceleration which is acceleration due to gravity (10m/s2 ).
There velocity is constant (terminal velocity).
Consider a feather and a lead (metal) ball bearing falling in vacuum

Both the feather and the ball bearing will

reach the bottom at the same time because
they are moving with same acceleration
(10m/s)

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Falling in Liquid
 When an object is falling in liquid there are three forces acting on
it
 The weight W of the ball (acting down wards)
 The upthrust U of the displaced liquid
 Fluid friction Fr

 W and U are constant but Fr changes with change in speed,

viscosity of liquid and size of object
 the higher the speed the more the friction force.
 More viscous liquids have bigger friction force than less viscous.
 Flat and rough surface object experience more air resistance than smooth,curved and
streamlined shape object. Bigger objects have large frictional force than small object
when both are in motion.
 At first metal ball accelerates because
downward force (W) is greater than Upward
B C
force (U + Fr), a point is the reached when
downward force is equal to upthrust
Velocity A
W = U + Fr (this is terminal
(m/s)
velocity)

Time (s)

 Consider graph of motion of a ball in different liquid (viscosity)

Velocity B

(m/s) C

Time (s)

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- A is a graph of least viscous liquid (i.e. ethanol). It will take longer time to reach terminal
velocity since friction force is very weak. The ball will take shot time to reach the bottom
of the containe. (RF) = W – (U + Fr) is very big
- B is a graph of mediate viscous liquid (i.e. water). All results are intermediate
- C is a graph of high viscous liquid (i.e. glycerin). It will take shorter time to reach
terminal velocity since friction force is very strong. The ball will take long time to reach
the bottom of a container. RF = W – (U + Fr) is very small.

Falling in the Air

 There are two forces that act on an object falling in air
 Weight
 Air friction force Fr or air resistance
 Upthrust force force is very small hence negligible.

Consider a feather and a ball bearing

falling in air

 Ball bearing reaches the bottom first because it has greater weight W than a [Link]
average speed of a coin is much higher than that of a feather.
 W – (U + Fr) is greater in coin hence reaches terminal velocit after a longer time while W –
(U + Fr) is very small in feathe, reaches terminal velocity after a short time.

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Questions
1) Define the following
a) Inertia
b) Terminal velocity
c) Momentum
2) a) state Newtons Second law of motion
b. state 3 application of Newton third law of motion in every day life
c) a car of mass 6000kg is travelling at uniform speed of 45m/s from ekwenden to Chambo. A
man steps out in front of the car causing a driver to brake suddenly. It takes 5 seconds to
stop the car. Work out the deceleration of the car.

3. below is the diagram showing an object falling in air

A C a) Name forces A,B and C
b) What would be the relationship between
magnitude of A,B and C
c) Name two forces that are constant
B

4. with the aid of a well labelled diagram describe an experiment you would carry out

to find the terminal velocity of an object falling in oil.

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TOPIC:4 HOOKES LAW

FORCE AND EFFECTS

 Force is a pull or push. Force has the following effects
 Causesstationary object to start moving
 Causes moving object to stop i.e. stoping a moving car by a goalkeeper
 Change direction of object
 Changes speed of object (increase or decrease)
 Changes shape of the object (deform)

Hooks law

 Hooks low states that for a herical spring or other elastic material, the extension (e) is
directrly proportional to the force applied (F) proided the limit of elasticity is not exceeded.
Mathematecally Fαe
F=Kxe where k is constant (N/cm)
e is entention (cm)
F is Force (N)

K = F/e

 When force is applied to a material some permanently deform (out of shape) while some they
come back to normal shape when deformed
 The limit of the applied force from which the material will retain to its shape when force is
removed is called elastic limited.
 From hooke’s law the value of k and e determine the stiffness or how difficult the spring is to
stretch.
 A stiffer spring has a small extension(e) with a large spring proportionality constant(k).
 Aspring which is easy to stretch has large e and small k.

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Hooke’s law

Load

(N)

Extension (cm)

 Hooke’s law can be applied in constructingand calibrating a spring balance. Calibrating a

spring means putting a scale on the spring.

Extending springs in series

 Consider two springs in series

 When force is applied, the spring extends with the same Spring 1

amount. The total extension is double what it would have

been with just on spring and the spring constant is halved. Spring 2
Extending spring in parallel
 Consider two springs in parallel When force is applied, the springs extend half the amount
compared to what happen with just one because the
springs share the load. Spring constant is doubled
Spring 1 Spring 2
 Extension = stretched length – un stretched length
e = SL – UL
load
Example

The proportionality constant k of a spring is 0.2N/m. calculate the extension produced by a load of
3N.

solution
given: k = 0.2 N/m, F = 3N e= ?
F = ke then e = F/k
e = 3N/0.2N/cm
e = 15cm

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Consider the graph of stretched spring

AB – within the limit of elasticity. Hooke’s law is obeyed

B C B – Limit of elasticity

Force (N) BC – beyond limit of elasticity. Hooke’s law is not obeyed

A Extension
(cm)

Questions
1. Define
a) Elasticity
b) Extension
2. a) State Hooke’s law
b) Study the figure below. If the two springs
Spring 1 Spring 2
above are identical and each spring has a
spring constant of 20N/cm, calculate the total
extension. 6N
3. The proportionality constant is 0.5N/cm, calculate
a) The extension caused by a 5N load
b) The force required to extend the spring by 10cm
4. Describe an experiment that you would carry out to verify Hooke’s law
5. Explain what happens to the extension of the spring that ere in
a) Series
b) Parallel
6. A spring of normal length 30cm becomes 35cm long when stretched by a stretching
force of 20N. Work out
a. Extension of the spring
b. The force that causes an extension of 3cm

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TOPIC: 5 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

 A uniform circular motion is a motion along a circular path in which there is no change in
speed only direction,
Examples of circular motion
 car negotiating a corner  Bicycle wheel rotating
 earth orbiting around the sun  An aircraft banking
 a ball whirled at the end of string  Conical pendulum

 Anything that move in a circle has

 steady speed (constant)
 changing direction
 changing velocity
 accelerates towards the center but never gets closer
 Consider a bob tied on a string whirled around in a horizontal
circle
A
 The bob moves around the circumference of a circle, Q
r
changing direction of the motion, making an arc AB
 The bob is displaced from point A to point B through angle θ
B
(angular displacement). It is measured in radian (rad).
 Angular displacement is the angle displaced by a object moving in circular motion.
S = θr where S = arc
θ = angular displacement
r = radius

 The rate of change in angular displacement is angular velocity (ѡ). Its SI unit is radian per
second (rad/s).
Angular velocity = angular displacement
Time
ѡ = θ/t

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Example

A stone tied to a string is whirled around with a radius of 15m. if the body moves along an arc length
of 2.0m. Work out

a) The angular displacement of the stone

b) The angular velocity of the stone if it takes 4s to travel through the arc
Solution a) θ = s/r
2m
= 2m/1.5m
= 1.33rad
b) ѡ = θ/t
1.5m
= 1.33rad/4s
0 = 0.33rad

Relationship between tangential (linear) velocity and angular velocity

 Angular variables are closely related to linear variables.

Angular displacement θ = s/r Then s = θr
Tangential (linear) velocity V = s/t
But s = θr substitute θr for s
V = θr/t
From Angular velocity w = θ/t
Then θ = wt substitute wt for θ we get
V = wtr/t

V = wr Where v = tangential velocity

r = radius
W = angular velocity

 The rate of change of angular velocity is equal to angular acceleration

Δ𝑤 Δ𝑤
=a or a=
𝑡 𝑡
or a = v2 /r

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Example

The wheels of a car were found to rotate with an

angular velocity of 65.5rad/s. what is the tangential
velocity on the outside edges of the wheels with
radius of 45cm

W = v/r V = wr

V = 65.5rads-1 x 0.45m

V = 29.48m/s

Centripetal Force

 To have circular motion, force is required to maintain the motion. Centripetal force is the
force which acts on object in circular motion and is directed towards the center.
 From Newton’s second law of motion
F = ma but centripetal acceleration (a) = v2 /r
The centripetal force (F) = mv2 /r
 More centripetal force is needed if
 The mass of the object is increased
 The speed of the object is increased
 The radius of the circle is reduced

Example

A stone of mass 50kg is swirled around using a string at a steady of 80m/s. the radius of its orbits is
2m. Work out

a) The centripetal force on the mass

b) The acceleration of the mass towards the center
Solution
a) F = mv2 /r F = 0.05kg x 82 /2
F = 1.6 N
b) a = v2 /r a = 82 /2
a = 32m/s
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Questions

1. define
a) angular displacement
b) angular velocity
c) centripetal force
2. A 2kg rock swings in a circle of radius 4m. if its constant speed is 10m/s calculate
a) the centripetal acceleration
b) the centripetal force
3. a car of mass 100kg moves around a circular track of radius 100m with a linear speed of
20m/s. calculate
a) angular velocity
b) centripetal force
c) centripetal acceleration.
4. a giant wheel of radius 20m is rotating about the axis at a frequency of 5Hz. Find
a) the angular velocity in radian/second
b) The linear velocity of a point on the rim of the wheel
5. explain the relationship between tangential (linear) velocity and angular velocity
6. state three applications of circular motion in everyday life
7. Explain an experiment that can be used to demonstrate object in a circular motion

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TOPIC :6 MOMENTS OF FORCES

 Moment of force is the turning effect of a force from the pivot or fulcrum. It is measured in
Nm.
Moment of force (at appoint) = Force x perpendicular distance from the pivot
F = Fd
 If you consider the door handle and position of hinge, the handle is far from hinge so that
small force is used to open the door. It is difficult to tighten nut with a finger but easy with a
spanner because with spanner larger turning effect is produced.
 Consider

d
pivot
F

Moment of force (F) = Fd

 Moment of a force produce rotation about pivot (clockwise or anticlockwise)
 Moments of force depends on magnitude of force and the distance from pivot.

Principal of moment for a body in equilibrium

 States that for a body to be in equilibrium the sum of clockwise moment must be equal to
anticlockwise moments of force about any point.
Clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment
F x distance (left hand side) = F x distance (right hand side)
 Consider two forces suspended on a ruler

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50N
25N

6m 3m
Pivot
Anticlockwise moment clockwise moment
= 25N x 6m = 50N x 3m

= 150 Nm = 150 Nm

Force and Torque

 Consider a force acting on a right body

d
o

F
 When a force is exerted on a rigid body pivoted about an axis (0), the object tends to rotate
about an axis.
 The tendency of a force to rotate an object about some axis is called Torque (Τ). It increases
as force increase
Τ = Fd where Τ = torque (turning moment) Nm
F = magnitude of force (N)
d = ┴ distance of line of action of force from the axis (cm)

Example

Calculate the torque of a 5N force acting on the axis through 0. In each case

0 5
N
a) b)
0
5
N 4cm 4cm

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Solution
a) Τ = Fd
b) Τ = Fd
= 5N x 4m
= 5N x 5m
= 20Nm
= 25Nm

Systems involving moment

 Moments are used mainly in levers. A lever is any device that can turn about a pivot.
 In a lever a force called effort is used to overcome a resistance force called Load
 Examples of system that uses principle of moments of force are crowbar, wheelbarrow,
forearm, bottle opener, pair of scissors, hoe, stapler, fork etc.

Centre of mass
 Is a point on the object where all the mass is said to be focused. The center of mass of a rigid
object is the same position as it center of gravity.
 Centre of gravity is the point through which the earth’s gravitational forces act on the object.

For irregular shape (lamina) for regular shape

 A lamina is a three – dimensional shape that is so thin that it can be considered to be two
dimensional i.e. piece of card.

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Questions
1. Define
a) Moment of force
b) Centre of mass
2. State the principle of moments for a body in equilibrium.
3. Calculate the distance d in figure below

d 4cm

8N 4N

4. Describe how you would determine the center of mass of an irregular shape cardboard (by
experiment)
5. Describe an experiment that you would carry out to verify the turning effects of a force.

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TOPIC:7 MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM

 Magnetic materials are any ferrous materials that can be attracted to a magnet i.e iron, cobalt,
nickel and steel.
 A magnet is any ferrous material that can attract other metallic object. Can be
 Permanent magnet i.e. bar magnet
 Temporary magnet i.e. electromagnet
 Magnetization is the process of making a magnetic material become a magnet.

Methods of Magnetization
1) Electrical method
 A piece of steel metal is placed in a long coil or solenoid made up of several hundred turns of
conducting wire connected to a high d.c for sometime
 The steel in a solenoid become magnetized only as current pass hence temporary magnet

2) By induction
 Consider a paper clip and magnetic bar as below

S N If you first put clip 1 and clip 2 closer they will

N
not experience magnetic force from each other.
1
S Placing them like in the diagram, Clip 2 will
N
2 experience magnetic force from clip 1.
S

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3) Stroking Method (touching)

 A steel bar is stroked by a bar magnet. It can be single stroking or double stroking.

(a) Single touch

 In a single touch the steel bar to be magnetized is stroked from end to end several times
(about 20 times) in the same direction and with the same pole of the magnet.
 Between successive strokes, the magnet is lifted high above the bar as shown in the
diagram. This prevents the magnetism already induced from being weakened.

 The pole produced at the end of the bar where the stroking ends is of the opposite kind to
that of the stroking pole. The single touch method is disadvantageous because it produces
magnets in which the one pole is nearer the end of the bar than the other.

(b) Divided / double touch

 In the divided touch method, the bar to be magnetized is stroked from the centre outwards
with unlike poles of two magnets at the same time.

 The pole produced at the end of the steel bar where the stroke ends is of the opposite to
that of the stroking pole.

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 If the steel bar is magnetized by divided touch using like poles such as two S-poles, the
bar will obtain N-poles at both ends, and a double S-pole at the center as shown in the
figure below,

 The bar of such kind is said to possess consequent poles.

Demagnetization
 Is the removal of magnetism from an object. It can be done by the following methods
a) Heating strongly
b) Hammering or dropping the magnet
c) Placing a magnet in a coil carrying alternately current
d) Stopping the flow of current in a circuit and in a coil where a metal rod is placed.

Magnetization and demagnetization in terms of domain.

 Magnetic materials consist of dipoles or molecular magnets which interact with each
other. They are arranged in areas called domains (point in one direction).
 Consider the arrangements below

When material is not magnetized When material is magnetized

(random orientation domain) (domain lined up)

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?? 1. Define
a) Domains
b) Electromagnetic induction
c) Magnetic material
2 a) with the aid of a well labeled diagram explain how you can magnetize a
Material by stroking method
c) Mention three methods of demagnetizing the material
c. Describe
3) Explain
a) Flemings left hand rule
b) Flemings right hand rule

ELECTROMAGNETISM
 The term “electromagnetism” combines both the production of magnetic field by
means of electric current and production of electric current by means of magnetic
field.

 Electromagnetism means the ability iron or steel bars placed inside a

solenoid to attract magnetic materials. The magnets made in this way are
called electromagnets.

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Magnetic field due to current in a straight wire
 When current is passed through a conductor, it produces magnetism.

current

Magnetic field

Magnetic field around a conductor

 Reversing the direction of the current also reverses the direction of magnetic field
line reverses.
 Increasing the number of cells increases the size of the magnetic field.
 Direction of current and magnetic field are found by

1. Maxwell’s Corkscrew Rule

 The rule relates the direction of the magnetic field to the direction of the current.
 The direction of the screw is the
direction of current, whilst the
direction of the motion of the thumb
gives the direction of magnetic field

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2. Right hand grip rule.
 It states that
 If you hold the first finger of your hand at right angle to each other, the First finger
points in the direction of magnetic Field, the second finger points the direction of
induced Current and Thumb the direction of Motion

 If you curl your finger, the thumb points in the direction of current and the finger
point in the direction of magnetic field
Magnetic field due to current in a loop
 when current flows into loop, a magnetic field is created around the loop

Circular coil

Field line

Current direction

 the field pattern around the coil produces two magnetic poles. One is the North
Pole and the other faces the South Pole
Magnetic field in a solenoid
 A solenoid is a long-coiled length of wire. It is made up of several turns of wire.

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 Magnetic field pattern is produced around a solenoid when current is flowing
through it as illustrated.

 The strength of magnet field produce in a solenoid can be increases by

 Increasing the current
 Increasing the number of turns in the coil
 Placing a ferromagnetic material i.e. iron in a solenoid

Force on a current carrying conductor

 When a current is passed through a conductor, a magnetic field is produced.
 When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a force is produced.
 The figure below shows an experiment to demonstrate the force produced when a Current
is passed through a conductor in a
Magnetic field.
 The conductor in this case is a length
of stiff copper wire, and it is at right
S
Angles to the field provided by the
magnet. N
 When the switch is closed, current
flows through the wire. The wire
moves upwards, indicating that there is
upward force acting on it.

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 If the direction of either the current or the field is reversed, the wire moves downwards.
 It should be noted in each case that the force on the wire acts at right angles to both the
current direction and the field direction.
 The wire is moved across the field; It is not attracted to either pole of the magnets.
 This shows that a force is provided on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field of
a bar magnet.

Flemings left hand rule

 Knowing the direction of the current and the Field in the diagram, the direction of the
force can be found using Fleming’s left-hand rule:
“If the thumb and the first two fingers of the left hand are held at right angles to one
another, the Thumb gives the Direction of the Thrust (the force), the First finger points in
the same direction as the magnetic Field and these seCond finger points in the same
direction as the Current” (TTFFCC)

Thumb for thrust/force

direction

First finger for field

direction

Second finger for

current direction
In applying the rule, remember the following;
a. The direction of the field is from the N pole to the S-pole.
b. The direction of the current is from the positive (+) terminal of the battery to the
negative (-) i.e. conventional current direction.

c. The rule applies only where the current and field directions are at right angles .

 The direction of force or push can change by the following

a) Reversing the direction of the magnetic field
b) Reversing the direction of current
 The size of the force applied on the wire can be increased by the following

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a) Increasing the amount of current
b) Using the stronger bar magnet
c) Increasing the length of the wire which is within the magnetic field .

Applying Flemings left hand rule

 The relationship between the direction of magnetic field, the current in the wire and the
direction that the wire would move into leads to motor effect.
 Flemings left hand rule is applied in electric motors and moving coil galvanometer

1. Electric motor
 Electric motor is a device that converts electrical energy into kinetic energy. Uses the
turning effect of a conductor when it is placed in magnetic field.

 An electric motor contains a rectangular coil of wire of many turns mounted on an axle
between two poles of a permanent magnet.
 Current passes into the coil via two brushes that are pushed against a split-ring, known
as the commutator.
 The commutator rotates with the coil and reverses the current into the coil every half
cycle to ensure the current flows in the same direction near each pole and so the coil
continues to rotate in one direction.

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How electric motors works
 When current flows through the coil, forces are set up on the two sides of the coil labelled
CD and AB.
 These two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction and so cause the coil to
rotate.
 When the coil reaches the vertical position, no current flows for a moment, but the coil
keeps on rotating because of its inertia.
 The direction of the motor can be changed by
a) Reversing the direction of the magnetic field
b) Reversing direction of the current
 The speed of the rotation of the coil can be increased by
a) Increasing the current
b) Increasing number of turns in the coil
c) Increasing the strength of the permanent magnet
d) Increasing the area of the coil placed in the magnetic field

2. The loud speaker

 The moving coil loud speaker consists of a cylindrical permanent magnet which produces
a strong radial magnetic field, a coil which is
free to move short distances backwards and
forwards in the magnetic field and a stiff paper
cone attached to the coil.

How the moving coil loud speaker works?

 The wire in the coil lies at right angles to the
magnetic field. If an alternating current is

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passed through the coil, the coil is pushed alternately backwards and forwards. This
makes the paper cone to vibrate and sound waves are given out as a result.
 The nature of the sound produced depends on the frequency and the amplitude of the
current flowing through the coil.

Electromagnetic induction
 If current carrying wire canproduce a magnetic field, a magneic field can also produce
current.
 move the magnet in and out of the solenoid tthen leave the bar magnet in solenoid as
below and observe what happens o the pointer of the gavalnometer

 The pointer of the galvanometer was moving when the bar magnet was being moved into
or out of the solenoid. There was no movement of the pointer when the bar magnet was
stationary inside the solenoid
 The movement of the pointer indicates that current was flowing through the conductor.

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 This means that an emf, which caused the flow of the current, was induced in the coil
which was connected to the galvanometer either by the movement of the magnet in or out
of the solenoid
Laws of electromagnettic induction
 Tthere is relationship between the directionof the induced current and magnetic field
1. Lenzs law

 The Lenz’s law states that an induced current always flows in a direction such
that it opposes the change in the magnetic field that produces it.
2. Faraday’s law
 Faraday’s law states that the magnitude of the induced electromotive force in
conductor is proportional to the speed of motion of the magnet.
Application of electromagnetic induction
1. The generators
 There are two types of generators; the alternating current (ac) generator and the direct
current (dc) generator
a) Ac Generator (the alternator)
 An ac generator consists of a coil made up of an insulated copper wire which is rotated
by turning an axle, slip rings and carbon brushes. The slip rings are fixed to the coil and
rotate with it.
 The brushes are two contacts which rub against the slip ring and keep the coil connected
to the outside part of the circuit.
How ac generators work
 When the coil is rotated, it cuts magnetic field lines, so an emf is generated (induced).
This generated emf makes the current flow. As the coil rotates, each side travels upwards,
downwards, upwards, downwards… and so on. So an alternating current is generated.
 The size of the induced emf (and the current) can be increased by;
- increasing the number of turns on the coil.
- increasing the area of the coil
- using a stronger magnet
- rotating the coil faster.
b) The dc generator

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 The dc generator, just like an electric motor, consists of a wire of many turns mounted on
an axle between two poles of a permanent magnet, brushes and split-ring/commutators.
 The difference between the dc generator and the electric motor is that in the motor,
current is used to make the coil in the magnetic field rotate (turn), where as in the dc
generator, the coil is rotated physically in the magnetic field to produce current.
How dc generators work
 When the coil is rotated, an emf and current is generated in the coil. The split rings
reverse the connection with the outside circuit every time the coil passes through the
vertical. So the current in the outside circuit always
flows in the same direction.

2. The microphone
 A moving-coil microphone contains a thin metal foil
diaphragm and a coil attached to the rear of the
diaphragm in a magnetic field of a permanent
magnet.
 The current can be amplified (made larger) and heard in a loud speaker.
 When you speak into a microphone, the sound waves cause the diaphragm to vibrate.
 This makes the coil to move in and out between the poles of the magnet. As the coil
moves in the magnetic field, a current is induced in it.

The transformer
 A transformer is a device which changes voltage
from one level to another (from high to low or low
to high)

 The transformer consists of two coils of wire wound

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on a soft iron core. The soft iron core helps to increase the amount of the induced current
by concentrating and directing the field lines from the first coil into the second coil.

 The coil connected to the power supply is called primary, and the coil connected to the
induced output voltage is called secondary.

How transformer works

core

Primary coil Secondary coil

 When alternating current passes through the primary coil it produces an alternating
magnetic field in the core. The magnetic lines of force rise and fall.
 This causes the lines of force to cut the secondary coil. The cutting of lines of force on
the secondary coil induces emf in the secondary coil. The process is called mutual
inductance
 The amount of emf induced in the secondary coil depends on the turns ratio in the two
coil. The turn ratio of a transformer is given by
number of turns in the primary coil voltage in the primary coil
=
number of turns in the secondary coil voltage in the secondary coil

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Np Vp
=
Transformer equation Ns Vs

 Another relationship is between the currents and number of turns:

number of turns in the primary coil current in the secondary coil
=
number of turns in the secondary coil current in the primary coil

𝑁𝑝 𝐼𝑠
=
𝑁𝑠 𝐼𝑝

Example
What is the output voltage if the input voltage is 12V, the primary coil has 100 turns and the
secondary coil has 25 turns?
solution

𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑠
𝑁𝑝
= 𝑁𝑠

12
𝑉𝑠 = x 25
100

= 3V

?? A transformer steps down the mains supply from 230V to 10v to operate an answering
machine.

a) What is the turn ratio of the transformer winding?

b) How many turns are on the primary if the secondary has 100 turns
c) What is the current in the primary of the transformer if the current in the machine is 2A?

Types of transformers
The are two principal types of transformers; the step up transformer and the step down
transformer

a) The step up transformer

 A step up transformer is a transformer that transforms low voltage to high voltage (it
steps up voltage). Has more turns in the secondary coil than in primary coil.

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Ns ˃ Np

b) Step down transformer

 A step down transformer is a transformer that transforms high voltage to low voltage
(steps down voltage). Has more coils in primary coil tan secondary coil
Ns ˂ Np

Electrical Power transmission

 Electrical power transmission is done in grid system (network of cables) supported
by pylons. Grid system connects the power station to consumers
 At power station electricity is generated (3,300V) and stepped up in a step-up transformer
to maybe 60,000V to be sent over long distances on the super grid.
 The voltage is later stepped down in a step-down transformer at substation for
distribution to industries.

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 The voltage going to homes and schools is further stepped down to 240V in step-down
transformer.

 When electricity is transmitted from the power stations to the consumers through the
cables, some of the power is lost as heat.
 To reduce the power loss, the electricity is transmitted at a very high voltage and a very
low current so that the ‘I2 ’ is as small as possible. (60,000V at 1A)
Power loss = I2 R
Efficiency of a transformer
 Efficiency € of a device the percentage of the energy supplied to the one which is
usefully transferred
𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
Efficiency = X 100% or Efficiency = X 100%
𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

But input power = Vp x Ip and output power = Vs x Is

𝑉𝑠 𝑋 𝐼𝑠
Therefore efficiency = 𝑉𝑝 𝑋 𝐼𝑝

 for ideal transformer, efficiency is 100% since output and input power are equal
Vp X Ip = Vs X Is
Factor that causes power loss

a) Resistance of the wires in the coils

 Energy in the form of heat is lost in both the primary coil and the secondary coil due
to resistance of the wire. In large transformers oil is used to cool down the wires to
avoid overheating.
b) Eddy current
 The iron core is in a changing magnetic field of the primary coil. This induces an emf
and hence small circulating currents called eddy currents in the core. Some of the
input energy is lost as heat energy produced by these eddy currents.
 The energy loss due to eddy currents is reduced by using laminated (layered) iron
core rather than a solid block. A laminated iron core is a core made up of sheets of
iron insulated from each other.
c) Leakage of field lines

 All the field lines produced by the primary coil may not cut the secondary coil.

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 Energy loss due to leakage of field lines may be prevented by winding the primary
and the secondary coils one on top of the other
d) Some energy is used to magnetize and demagnetize the core

Environmental impact of power generation and transmission

a) Hydroelectric power
 causes flooding. Building a dam causes environmental damage
b) Nuclear power
 The waste from nuclear fuel is very dangerous to the environment and stays
radioactive for thousands of years
c) Fossil fuels
 When the fuel burns, their waste gases pollute the atmosphere. Fossil fuels
produce carbon dioxide gas and carbon monoxide gas when they burn which may
cause global warming
d) Solar power
 Solar power requires large area, causes land wastage
e) Biomass
 Biomass requires large area, causes land wastage

?? A transformer has an input supply of 20 V and delivers 250 V. If the transformer is 80%
efficient and the secondary coil is connected to a 100 W bulb, work out
a) The primary current
b) The input power
c) The secondary current
d) The turns ratio
e) The number of turns in the secondary coil if there are 50 turns in the primary coil

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TOPIC:8 INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

Electronics:
 A branch of science which deals with electrical current in electronic equipment i.e. radio,
fridges, televisions etc.

BAND THEORY
 Explains how solids (conductors, semiconductor and insulator) differ in conduction.
 The difference is due to number of free
electrons, the conduction band and
forbidden gap.
 In a single atom each electron occupies a
specific energy level, but in block of solids (metals) atoms are very close together and
energy levels fuse into bands which are shared by all atoms.

Electrical conduction by solids

 Solids are grouped into three depending on their conductivities for electricity or heat
i) Conductors
ii) Semiconductors
iii) Insulators (non-conductors)
1. Conductors
 Materials that conduct electricity and heat. There is a small gap between valence and
conduction band (overlaps).
 Electrons move freely between
valence band and conductor’s band.
Any voltage (p.d.) across metals
makes the electrons flow (causing
electric current).

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2. Insulators
 Materials that do not conduct electricity (i.e. wood & rubber). The gap between valence
and conduction band is too big such that electrons cannot jump from valence to
conduction band even after being exited.

 As such insulators do not conduct

electricity in any conduction.

3. Semiconductors
 Materials that partially conduct electricity
i.e. Silicon and Germanium.
 Forbidden gap is small (intermediate). Bigger than in metal and smaller than in
insulators.
 Less energy is required to make electrons to jump from valence band to conduction band.

 Increase in temperature increases conduction because more electrons jump from valence
to conduction band.
 They are not good conductors because
they need extra energy to move
electrons. At low temperature they
behave as insulators.

Types of semiconductors

a) Intrinsic (pure) semi-conductors

 Materials that are naturally semiconductors made from type of element i.e Silicon and
Germanium.
 They do not need artificial materials to improve their conductivity.

b) Extrinsic semiconductor
 Semiconductors that are made by doping intrinsic semiconductor

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 Doping is the process of adding the small but controlled impurities into intrinsic
semiconductors to improve conductivity.
 There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors
(i) n-type semiconductor
(ii) p-type semiconductor

i) The n-type semiconductor

 These are formed when an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with atom which has more
electrons in the valence band than valence band of intrinsic semiconductor.
 This adds some electrons (negative charge) in the valence band which act as carrier.
Example: Doping silicon (intrinsic semiconductor) with 4 valence electrons with
phosphorous which has 5 valence electrons.

 The extra electrons go into the conduction band and they are free to move through the
material. Free electron act as a carrier of current.

ii) P-type semiconductor

 These are made by doping semiconductor with atoms which has fewer electrons in
valence than in the valence of intrinsic semiconductor.
Example: doping silicon, which has 4 valence electrons with Boron which has 3 valence
electrons.

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 The gap is created which readily accept electrons which may be moving in silicon.
However, the electrons move from atom to atom, an electron which moves into the hole
must leave a hole in the atom it has come from.
 The positive hole appears to move through the material in the opposite direction to the
electron movement. The hole act as a carrier.

The P-N Junction

 P-N junction is formed by joining P-type and n- type semiconductor material. At the
junction, electrons from n-type side move to fill the gaps in p-type side.
 The electron differs across the depletion region. This makes p-type side to be negatively
and n-type positively charge.

 P-N junction is used in diodes and transistors

Operation of a P-N junction diode

 A diode is an electrical device (two-terminal) that allows current to flow in one direction
only. (similar to bicycle tube valve)
 Formed by joining p-type and n-type semiconductor forming a P-N junction. Electrons
move from n-type to p-type material hence conduction is in one direction.
 Its symbol is

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Forward biase
 This is when p-type end is connected to positive and n-type to the negative terminal of
the battery. Current is able to flow through the circuit.

Current voltage characteristics

Reversed Biased

 This is when connection is opposite to forward biased. Current does not pass through.

 Electrons and holes flow in opposite direction which widens the depletion region. As the
gap widens the resistance increase hence no flow of current in the diode.

Uses of Diodes
 Diode can be used as a rectifier, switch or indicator.

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1) As a Rectifier
 Diode changes alternating current (a.c) to direct current (d.c). The process is
called rectification.
 There are two ways of rectifying current
a) Half wave rectifier
 An a.c. voltage supply changes terminals periodically (from + to - to + to – to +
and so on) and current direction also changes.

 If a diode is connected in a circuit in series as shown below;

 When A is positive, the diode is forward biased and current flow through the diode.
When B is positive the diode is reversed biased, current does not flow.
 This means that the flow is in one half of the cycle and zero on the other half.

 Half wave rectification is, therefore, the process of changing a c to d c which results in
current flowing through the circuit for only one half of the cycle. The circuit that is used
to bring about half wave rectification is known as a half wave circuit.
b) Full wave Rectifier
 This is the process of changing a.c. to d.c. where current flow through the circuit in both
halves of the cycle.
Consider a bridge rectifier

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 When A is positive, D1 and D3 are

forward biased while D2 and D4 are
reverse-biased. Current will flow from
A, to D1, to the bulb (entering at a and
leaving at b), to D3, and to B.
 When B is positive, D2 and D4 are
forward biased while D1 and D3 are
reverse- biased. This time the current
will flow from B, to D2, to the bulb
(entering at a and leaving at b), to D4,
and to A.
 In both halves of the cycle, a fluctuating direct output current flows through the bulb in
the same direction. The current through the bulb will be as follows;

2. As a switch

 When diode is forward biased, it has very low resistance. Current flow through it and
switches on the bulb. When reverse biased, current does no not flow and switches off.

3. As indicator

 Light emitting diodes are the one used as indicators. These diodes emit light when current
passes through

+ -

 If appliance is on, the LED gives off light and if it is OFF the LED does not give light.

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Thermistors
 Is a resistor whose resistance depends on temperature. When temperature in thermistor
increase, its resistance decreases and vice versa.

 Thermistor has low resistance at high temperature and allows more current to switch on
the transistor in the circuit.
 At high temperature it has high resistance and allows low current to switch off the
transistor in the circuit
Inductors
 Is a passive electrical component that stores energy in form off magnetic field. It consists
of wire loop or coil

Transistors

 Is a three terminal device made by joining three semiconductors together. The three
terminals are base (B), emitter (E) and collector (C).
 There are two types of transistor
a) p – n – p transistor
b) n – p – p transistor
a) p – n – p transistor
 n – type semiconductor is in between two p – type semiconductor

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b) n – p – n transistor
 In the n-p-n transistor the p – type semiconductor is sand witched between two n –
type semiconductors

 The symbol for both type transistors is similar but the arrows point in different
direction. The arrow shows the direction of current.
 The relationship of current in the emitter (Ie), in collector (Ic) and base (Ib) is
Ie = Ib + Ic
 There are two ways of connecting transistor in a circuit
i) Common Emitter circuit
 Both the base emitter and collector emitter circuit are joined to the emitter

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 A small power supply is needed in the base emitter path so that the base emitter
junction is forward biased and current flow through it.
ii) Common collector circuit
 Both base-emitter and the collector-emitter circuit are joined to the collector.
 The same power supply which is in the collector-emitter path provides the small
current in base-collector path which switches on the current emitting path.

Uses of transistors

1. As a switch
 Change in the base current can turn on and off the current in the collector emitter
path.
2. As amplifier
 An amplifier is a device that magnifies the input
 A transistor magnifies small input signal to produce a large output signal. The
input can be current or voltage.

Analogue and Digital Circuit

 The word digital deals with digits, exact numbers or figures while analogue deals with
measurement

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 In analogue circuit, information is in the form of voltage and electrical current which
varies smoothly and continuously in the same way as it is being presented.
 Digital information has limited numbers and values (1 and 0). Can change only suddenly
from one value to another.

A) Analogue circuit
 They have input, processor and output plus power supply. Power supply activates
components in the processor
 Input and output are transducers (change one form of energy to another)

Transducer Where used Signal conversion

Microphone Sound input Sound to electrical
Loud speaker Sound input Electricity to sound
Photodiode Ligid meter light to electricity
Voltmeter measurements Electricity to mechanical

Building blocks for analogue circuit

1) Power pack – gives input power to all active components

2) Amplifier – increase amplitude of signals
3) Rectifier – convert alternating current to direct current
4) Filter – allows only waves of a certain frequency to pass
5) Oscillator – generates alternating current and voltage of certain controlled frequency

B) Digital circuit
 They also have input processor and output. Input and output are usually numbers in
decimals.

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 The processor does calculations using digital information in binary codes.

Processor, controller
Input Output
and calculator

Memor
y
Building blocks of digital systems

Input Processor Output

Switches, keyboards Arithmetic, counting, dividing Display (LED monitor)
Optical sensor (read optics Signal processing, amplifying Warning and control
and compact disc devices

Similarities between digital and analogue circuits

1. They both have building blocks which are input, processor and output
2. They both transmit information through electrical signal

Wave form for analogue and digital circuit

Analogue signal
Digital signal

 The wave form for analogue is continuous at any point while in digital, wave form is
discrete.

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Differences between digital and analogue circuit

Analogue Digital
 Information is in form of electrical Information is in binary form (1 and 0) where
purse of varying amplitude each bit represent two different amplitude
 use continuous signals to represent Signals are discrete time signal
physical measurements
 Uses sine wave Use square wave
 Record wave forms as they are Samples analogue wave form into limited set
of numbers and record them
 Data transmission is subjected to Not easily distorted
distortion
 Use large power Use very little power
 Low cost and portable High cost and not portable
 Memory store in wave signal gives Memory stored in binary bit
considerable observation error

Logic Gates

 Consider two circuits below

A
A B

(a) (b)

 The switch A and B are inputs of the system. each switch can have only one of the two
states. Either open or closed (ON or OFF).
 When switch A or B is open or closed it gives different results in circuit (a) or (b).

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Circuit (a) Circuit (b)

Switch A Switch B bulb Switch A Switch B bulb
Open Open Off Open Open Off
Open Closed On Open Closed Off
Closed Open On Closed Open Off
Closed Closed On closed Closed On

 When the bulb is ON and switch open it means Logic is 1 and when the bulb is OFF and
switch closed, logic is 0
Switch A Switch B bulb
Switch A Switch B bulb
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 1 1
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 0 0
1 1 1
1 1 1

 Logic gates are circuit with several inputs but only one output that can be activated by
particular combination of inputs.
 There are five basic types of logic gates and each gate has a truth table which gives all
possible inputs combination and output.

1) NOT gate
 This gate gives 1(ON) when input is 0(NOT ON) and vice versa. It is called an inverter
because it changes OFF to ON and ON to OFF
A Q Truth table
Input (A) Output(Q)
1 0
0 1

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2) AND gate
 This gives output 1 (ON) only when both inputs are 1. Thus if both inputs A AND input
B are ON
Truth table
A
Q Input Output
B A B Q
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
3) NAND gate
 Combination of NOT and AND gate. The output is ON if input A and input B are NOT
both ON. The output are combination of all AND gate

A
Q
Truth table
B Input Output
A B Q
0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

4) OR gate
 This has output of 1 (ON) when either A or B is 1 (on) or both are 1(ON). This means
output is 1 (ON) when at least one input is 1 (ON).

Truth table
A
Q Input Output
B
A B Q
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1

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5) NOR gate
 The combination of NOT and OR gate. The output is ON if either input A NOR input B is
ON. The output of this gate is only 1 (ON). If neither A nor B is 1 (ON). Has a small
circle on its symbol showing inverting and OR.
Truth table
A
Q Input Output
B
A B Q
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 0

Questions

1. Explain the difference between conductor, semiconductor and insulator

2. a) what is doping
b) Explain how n-type and p-type material is made
3. With the aid of a circuit explain how a P-N junction diode operator

4. Study the logic gate below

a) name the logic gate
b) write the true table for the gate
5. study the diagram below

B A
inpute Q
B
c
A

a) Name the logic gates above

b) Write the truth table for the arrangement

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Topic:9 Electromagnetic wave

 Electromagnetic waves come from whole variety of source. They are found in a band
called electromagnetic spectrum.
 Electromagnetic waves that make up electromagnetic spectrum are light waves, radio
waves, infra-red, microwaves, ultraviolet wave, x-rays and gamma rays.

Electromagnetic spectrum
Wave length (meters’)

Radio microwave infra-red visible ultraviolet x-ray Gamma rays

103 10-2 10-5 10-6 10-8 10-10 10-12

Frequency (HZ)

104 108 1012 1015 1016 1018 1020

Wave length, frequency and energy in an electromagnetic spectrum

Wavelength

 The range of wavelength is huge. The radio waves have the longest wavelength while
gamma rays have shortest wave length.

Frequency

 Electromagnetic waves with longer wavelength have lowest frequency. i.e. radio wave
while wave with the shortest wavelength have highest frequency i.e. gamma rays.

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Energy
 The electromagnetic wave with longest wave length and shortest frequency have lowest
energy i.e. radio wave
 Electromagnetic wave with the shortest wavelength and highest frequency have highest
energy i.e. gamma rays

Sources of electromagnetic spectrum

 Electromagnetic waves are emitted when electrically charged particle change energy
(high to low or low to high) which usually take place in an atom.
 When electron move from one energy level to another or oscillate around the energy
level, energy is released in form of electromagnetic wave.
 The greater the speed of oscillation the higher the frequency (f = V/λ), the shorter the
wave length and greater the energy.

Types of electromagnetic waves

1. Radio wave
 Have longest wave length in electromagnetic spectrum. Produced when electron oscillate
and are used for transmission of sound and particles.
2. Microwave
 Used for satellite communication and heating food in microwave.
3. Gamma radiation
 Produced from transition within the excited nucleus of an atom. Also result from other
radiation and fission and fusion reaction.
 Used in treating cancer and sterilization of food and medical equipment since they kill
bacteria.
4. Visible light.
 Produced when temperature is high (object is hot). Is used for photosynthesis and
photographic film

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5. Infra-red radiation
 Produced when there is a small energy change in an atom or molecular vibration
 Used in cooking, heating, drying and photocopier
6. Ultraviolet radiation
 Produced when there is high temperature due to large energy change in electron of atom.
Most of which are absorbed by ozone layer and the remaining are absorbed by our skin
for production of vitamin D

Common properties of electromagnetic waves

 They have speed in air and space
 They travel in vacuum
 They are transverse in nature
 They are electromagnetic and electric
 They obey wave equation (v = f x λ)
 They can be reflected, refracted and diffracted under stable condition.
Detectors of electromagnetic wave
Electromagnetic wave Detectors
Gamma rays Geiger-Muller tube
x-rays Photographic plates and gold leaf electroscope
Ultraviolet Photovoltaic cell and fluorescent
Visible light Eye, camera and photo cell
Infrared Phototransistors
Microwave Wave guide tube
Radio wave Aerial, diode and earphone

Applying wave equation in electromagnetic wave

 A wave equation is given by
V=fxλ where V = velocity or speed (m/s)
F = frequency (Hz)
A = wavelength (m)

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Example

Times radio station emits radio wave of wavelength 300m. Calculate frequency of a radio

wave if its speed is 3 x 108 m/s.

Solution

Given: v = 3 x 108 m/s λ = 300m f=?

v=fxλ

f = v/λ

3 𝑥 108
f=
300𝑚

f = 1 x 106 m

Questions

1. List four types of electromagnetic wave and their sources.

2. Write three common properties of electromagnetic waves mentioned in (1) above
3. Zodiac broadcasting cooperation broadcast a wave of speed 3 x 10 8 m/s on frequency of
1.5 x 106 Hz. Find the wavelength of this wave.
4. Chambo radio station emits radio waves of wavelength 100m. calculate frequency of
radio wave if its speed is 3 x 108 m/s
5. Write a short description of radio wave, microwave, infra-red, visible light, ultraviolet
radiation, x-rays and gamma rays

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TOPIC:10 LIGHT AND LENSES

LENSES

 They are made of glass or clear plastics. They produce image by refraction of light and
not reflection as in curved mirrors. There are two types of lenses
a) Convex lens (converging)
b) Concave lens (diverging)

CONVEX LENSE (CONVERGING

 Has its surface curved outward.

Biconvex planoconvex
 Light rays converge (come closer) when they pass through convex lens.

Light rays

CONCAVE LENS (DIRVEGING)

 It has surface curved inwards. Light rays diverge (move further apart) when passing
through concave lens.

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Light rays

TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH LENSES

h1 L

Object (O)
C 2F

2f F F
Image (I)
h2

U V

1. “O” represent object and ‘’I’’ represent image

2. “C” represent optical center of the lens where light rays are not reflected
3. “PA” ( principal axis ) -imaginary plane passing through the principal focus and optical
center
4. “F” (focal point) - a point on principal axis where rays from distance meet (principal focus)
5. “F” (focal length) -distance along PA from the center to focal point
6. “U” object distance from the lens and “v” image distance
7. “h1 ” is object height and “h2 ” is image height

 All horizontal distance (f1 ,v1 & u) are measured from the lens. All vertical distance (h1 & h2 )
are measured from PA. Only three rays are enough to describe light propagation through a
lens.

CHARACTERISTICS OF IMAGE

1. VIRTUAL /REAL
 Virtual image cannot be formed on a screen.
 Real image can be formed on the screen.

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2. MAGNIFIED, DIMINISHED OR SAME SIZE
 Magnified – when image is larger than object M>1
 Diminished – when image is smaller than object M<1
 Same size – when image is equal to object M=1

3. UPRIGHT (ERECT)/UPSIDE DOWN (INVERTED)

 Upright – when image is in the same direction with object
 Upside down – when image is in the opposite direction with object

CONSTRUCTION OF THE LIGHT RAY DIAGRAM

 three light rays always starting from the source of object O are used
 where these lines meet its where image is formed

Example

Draw a light ray of an object 2cm high placed at 2F if the focal length is 2.6cm

(i) Find the scale drawing

(ii) Position of the image
(iii) Magnification
(iv) Characteristics of image

2cm L

C 2F

2f F F

H2

i) It is beyond 2f
ℎ2
ii) Magnification =
ℎ1

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3.7
=
4

= 0.925

iii) Characteristics: real, inverted and diminished

 Consider an object placed at different position

1) Object between 2f and f

C 2F
2f F F

Position of image: beyond 2f

Characteristic: Real, inverted and magnified

2) Object at f

2F
C
2f F F

Characteristics: virtual

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3) Object beyond 2f

2F
C
2f F F

Position of object is between f and 2f

Characteristics: diminished, real and inverted (upside down)

4) Object between f and lens (optical centre)

I
L

2f
C
2f F F

Position of image: same side with the object

Characteristics: real, upright and magnified.

LENS FORMULA

 The lens formula is a useful instrument to unfold problems concerning magnification,

object distance and image distance.

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1 1 1
+𝑈 = where v = image distance
𝑉 F

. u = object distance
. f = focal length

Example
An object is placed 20cm away from convex lens of focal length 10 cm

(a) Using lens formula calculate the image distance

(b) Calculate the magnification of the image
(c) What is the nature of the image
Solution
1 1 1
(a) + = given f = 10
𝑉 𝑈 F

U = 20
1 1 1
+ =
𝑉 20 10
1 1 1
= −
𝑉 10 20
1 (2−1 )
=
𝑉 20
1 1
=
𝑉 20

v = 20cm
image height (h) image distance (v)
(b) Magnification = or
object height (h) object distance (u)
image distance
Magnification =
object distance
20
=
20

=1
(c) Nature : same size and Real

?? An object is placed 5cm from converging lens of focal length 0.015m Calculate the image
distance using lens formula

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EXPERIMENT

Aim : determination of focal length of a converging lens

Materials: convex lens, lens holder, screen, candle, matches and meter rule

Procedure

i. Arrange the candle, lens and screen as shown

ii. light the candle

iii. move the object until it is 12.5cm away from lens
iv. move the screen until you focus image of the object
v. measure the image distance and record
vi. add image distance and object distance and record (u+v)
vii. repeat steps 3 to 6 for object distance 10cm,30cm and 40cm
viii. draw a graph of u+v (cm) against u
ix. produce the line from lowest point of your graph to cut x-axis at D
x. use your graph to calculate focal length of the lens using the relationship 2f = u

Object distance Image distance U+v

12.5
15
30
40

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APPLICATION OF LENSESIN OPTICAL DEVICES

 The camera
 Film projector
 The human eye
 The telescope

THE CAMERA

 Is used to take pictures by forming image on the film

 simple camera consists of film, diaphragm, biconvex lens and shutter
 two light rays at 2f are used so that the image is real, inverted and diminished

1. Lens : forms a real, inverted and diminished image in front of object on the film
2. Diaphragm: used to control amount of light reading the film by changing the size of
aperture
3. Shatter: allows light from object to reach the film only that a time of shooting
 used to protect the film from direct exposure to light

4. Focus screw:

 used to adjust size of aperture

 adjust image distance to focus sharp image

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5. Photographic film

 It is used for image formation

THE SLIDE PROJECTOR

 Used to produce a magnified real and inverted image on a large screen using convex lens.

Concave lens
lamp

screen

Concave
condenser
mirror Slide (object)

1. Concave mirror
 Used to direct light from the lamp on to the object
2. Lamp
 Used to provide light for illumination of image
3. Condenser
 Used to collect light spreading out from the source
4. Slide
 Used to project light rays from the projector lens
5. Projector lens (convex)
 Used to focus sharp image on the screen
6. Screen
 Used to display the image formed

The Human eye

 Like the camera the human eye uses convex lens to form an image of the object on the
retina

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 Light enters the eye through cornea and pupil into the eye lens (convex lens) from the
object and focus in the retina forming a real, diminished and inverted image.
 Retina has sensitive cells that sends Image formation to the brain through optic nerves
 The brain interprets the information from the image.

Eye lens

2F
C
2f F F

 On a bright day iris reduces size to avoid too much light which can damage light sensitive
cells on the retina
 Ciliary muscles are used to change focal length of the eye lens while real object are
focused by long focal length (thin lens) while near object are focused by short focal
length (thin lens).
 Object too close (less than 25cm) lens fail to squeeze further hence blurred image.

Similarities between eye and camera

 Both uses convex lenses to focus image (real, diminished and inverted)
 Both uses an opening (pupil and aperture) as a passage of light

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 Both controls amount of light entering by changing size of hole (iris and diaphragm)
 Both have light sensitive surface (retina film) where image is formed.

Differences between eye and camera

 Eye lens can change shape while camera lens cannot
 Eye lens is located in front of iris while camera lens is located behind the aperture
 Eye does not change image distance while camera does using adjusting screw
 Eye is continuous exposed to light as long as it is open while camera, light allows to
reach film when opens

Visual defects of the human eye

 A normal human eye focus image from infinity up to 25cm
 Some people have problems to focus image at long distance or short distance
1. Short sight (myopia)
- Short sighted person sees things clearly when they are near but have problems to see
things at a distance.
- This is a result of either an eye ball that is too long or the lens is too strong.

Retina

Correction of the defect

- Wearing spectacles with concave lens which diverge light before action of eye lens

Retina

2. Long sight (hypermetropia)

- a person can focus an object clearly at distance but problem with near object.

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- This can be because of eye ball being too short or weak lens which makes the image
to be formed behind the retina

Retina

Correction of the defect

- By wearing spectacles with convex lens which converge light rays beyond eye lens
and cornea converge them.

Retina

The Telescope
 Is an instrument used to observe distance object i.e. planes, stars, mountains etc.
 It uses to lenses to produce magnified, virtual and real image. The first lens produces an
image which is used as object of the second lens.
 The second lens produces its own image of the first image.

Objective lens eyepiece lens

fo fe

h2

f fe fe

h2
o

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 Focal point of object lens fo coincide with focal point of eye piece lens fe.
 The distance from objective lens of eyepiece marks total length of telescope.
focal length of objective lens fo
M = focal length of eye piece lens fe

 Objective lens is used to produce real, inverted and diminished image of fo inside
telescope. Has long focal length (thin lens)
 Eye piece has shorter length (thin lens). Produce second image using first image Io. The
image is real, virtual and erect with respect to Io and inverted with respect to original
image.
 Image can be made smaller and closer by reducing distance between the two lenses

Questions.
1. State the difference between each of the following pairs
a) Object and image
b) Real image and virtual image
2. A 5 cm tall object is placed 10 cm away from a converging lens of focal length 5cm
a) Draw a ray diagram to find the position of an image formed (use a scale 1cm:2cm on
both axes)
b) State the nature of the image formed
c) Calculate the magnification of the image
3. With the aid of the diagrams explain
a) The structural difference between a convex lens and a diverging lens
b) The functional difference between a convex lens and a diverging lens
4. An object 8cm long is placed 10 cm in front of a converging lens of focal length 15cm
a) Use the lens formula to calculate the image distance
b) Calculate magnification of the image
c) Calculate the image height
5. Describe an experiment that you would carry out to find the magnification of the
converging lens
6. With the aid of a well labeled diagram, explain how a converging lens can form a real
image of a burning candle on the screen.

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TOPIC 11: NUCLEAR PHYSICS

NUCLEAR STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

 An atom consists of protons and neutrons inside the nucleus (nucleons) and electrons in
the energy level.
ee
e

e
e P n
e
N p
e

e
An atom ee

Particles position charges Mass (amu)

Neutrons Inside nucleus 0 1
Protons Inside nucleus + 1
Electrons Energy level - 0

 Atomic number (Z) is number of protons in an atom which is also called proton number
 Mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons (N + P) which is also called nucleon
number
 All atoms are neutral because number of protons and electrons are equal

𝐴
𝑍𝑋
Example
238
Uranium can be presented as 92 𝑈. Write down, number of protons, mass number, atomic
number and number of neutrons
a) The number of protons (Z) = A – n
= 92

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b) Mass number (A) = Z + n

= 238
c) Atomic number (A) = number of proton which is 92
d) The number of neutrons (n) = A – Z
= 146

Isotopes

 These are atoms of the same element with same atomic number but different mass
number due to different in number of neutrons.
6 7
i.e. 3 𝐿𝑖 and 3 𝐿𝑖 lithium -6 and lithium-7
12 14
6𝐶 and 6𝐶 carbon-12 and carbon-14
1 2 3
1𝐻 , 1𝐻 and 1𝐻 hydrogen-1, hydrogen-2 and hydrogen-3

Characteristics/prope rties of isotopes

1. Isotopes have the same chemical properties. They have same number of electrons and
electron configuration.
2. They have different nuclear property because they different nucleon number.
3. Have same atomic number but different mass number

Radioactivity
 Radioactive isotopes are isotopes that are unstable. These isotopes break up
spontaneously (disintegrate)
 They release radioactive (particles) from them to be stable (radioactivity)
 Radioactivity is the process of emitting radiation particles by an unstable substance
 The radiation emitted by radioactive material is sometimes called nuclear radiation
because they come from nucleus of an atom.

Types of Radioactivity
1. Natural Radiation: happens naturally from natural nuclide i.e. natural Uranium-238

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2. Induced radiation: take place for artificial nuclide (isotopes are made by reverse of the
decay process)
- Stable atom is made to absorb nuclear particle or gamma rays or protons which
becomes unstable i.e. Cobalt-59 bombarded (hit) with neutrons it becomes cobalt-60
(unstable) which emits strong gamma rays.

Types of nuclear Radiation

1. Alpha (α) radiation
2. Beta (β) radiation
3. Gamma (γ) radiation

Properties of nuclear radiation

1. Alpha (α) radiation

 Are helium atom because they have 2 electrons and 2 neutrons
 They have positive charge
 They are least penetrating because they are big. They are stopped by a sheet of paper
of few centimeter in air
 They are the most ionizing of all the nucleus radiation
 They are reflected towards negative charge
 They are deflected towards south pole of the magnetic field
2. Beta (β) radiation
 They are electrons
 They carry negative charge
 They are much less ionizing power than alpha radiation
 They are more penetrating than alpha particle. They penetrate a layer of air and thin
sheet of paper. They are stopped by few millimeters of aluminum
 They are deflected towards the north pole of magnetic field.
3. Gamma (γ) radiation
 They are electromagnetic waves of very short wave length
 They result from energy change inside atomic nuclear radiation
 They have no charge and no mass

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 They have no ionization effect since they have no charge
 They are the most penetrating, they penetrate a layer of air, a sheet paper and a sheet
of aluminum but can be absorbed by thick load metal
 They show no deflection in electric and magnetic because they have no charge

Penetration power

α β
γ

Deflection in electric field

+++++++
β
γ

α
- - - - -- -

Deflection in magnetic field

N
β
γ

α
S

Radioactive Decay

 Is the spontaneous disintegration of unstable nucleus or radioisotope to become stable

 Radioactivity is the spontaneous randomly emission of particles from within the nucleus

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 The nucleus which decay is called parent nucleus and the stable nucleus which result is
called daughter nucleus.
 The combination of daughter nucleus and the particle emitted is called decay product.
 A daughter nucleus is always in exited state, for it to be stable a third particle is emitted
called gamma (β) particle.
 Radioactive decay involves emission of an α-particle and β-particle.

Alpha (α) Decay

 When a nucleus undergoes α-decay it loses two protons and two neutrons
 It has mass number of 4 and atomic number of 2
𝑨 𝑨−𝟒
𝒁𝑿 𝒁−𝟐 𝒀 + 𝟒𝟐𝜶
Parent nucleus daughter particle
i.e.
𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝟖𝟖 𝑹𝒂 𝟖𝟔 𝑹𝒏 + 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆

Beta (β) Decay

 Are emitted by a nucleus which has many neutrons to be stable.

 When a nucleus undergoes β-decay
 Its mass number (A) remains unchanged
 Its atomic number (Z) increase by 1

The nuclear equation

𝑨 𝑨 𝟎
𝒁𝑿 𝒁+𝟏 𝒀 + −𝟏 𝜷

i.e.

𝟏𝟒 𝟏𝟒 𝟎
𝟔𝑪 𝟕𝑵 + −𝟏 𝜷

Gamma (γ) Decay

 Usually gamma rays are produced along beta or alpha particle.
 It has no mass number

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 Have very short wave length

The nuclear equation

𝑨 𝑨−𝟒 𝟎 𝟎
𝒁𝑿 𝒁−𝟏 𝒀 + 𝟐𝜶 + 𝟎𝒀

Parent daughter α-particle γ-particle

𝑨 𝑨 𝟎 𝟎
or 𝒁𝑿 𝒁+𝟏 𝒀 + −𝟏 𝜷 + 𝟎𝒀

Half Life

 Half-life is the time taken for half or the number of original substance to decay and
change into a new substance.
i.e. if you have 48 atoms of radium, then the time taken for 24 atoms to decay is known
as half of radium.
Some examples
element Half life
Thorium 1010 years
Radium 1 620 years
Bismuth-210 5 days
Potassium-218 3 minutes
Sodium 15hrs
Uranium-233 7 x 108 yrs
Carbon -14 5600yrs

 The total masses of decayed and un decayed remain the same as the original mass

Activities and decay curve

 Activity in radiation is the average number of disintegration per unit time in a radioactive
sample.
 The rate of decay can be plotted on a graph (decay curve)

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08

06 t1/2
04

02

2 4 6 8 10

Example
1. A radioactive sample has a half-life of 80 minutes. Work out amount of radioactive
sample remaining after 20 minutes. If initially it was 600g.

Solution

Given: Mr = ?, Total mass = 600g, Time taken= 200min

Number of half-life(n) = ?, half-life = 80 minutes

time taken 200

n= = = 2.5
half −life 80

Mr = total/2n

= 600/22.5 Mr = 106.07

2. A source is placed in front of a G-Muller tube and scalar, the initial counter rate after
the background count has been deducted is 4000. After 20 days, the counter rate after
deduction of the background count is 125. What is the half-life of the source?
Solution
Given: original counter rate Ao = 4000, let th number of half-life be n
Final counter An = 125
Ao = 2n
An

4000
= 2n
125

32= 2n
25 =2n n=5
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Nuclear Fission and Fusion
Nuclear Fission
 Nuclear fission is the process in which a heavy nuclear splits into two lighter nuclei. The
process releases extremely large amount of energy.
 Nuclear fission can occur naturally or artificially when nuclei are bombarded by particles
i.e. when uranium-235 is bombarded with slow neutrons, making it unstable (uranium
captures the neutron). The nucleus splits into medium mass parts
Neutron

U-235 Heavy nucleus

Fission product

Fission neutrons

 The fission neutron also splits other nucleus and the reaction can be summarized as:
Uranium -235 releases a neutron to produce Barium-144, krypton (Kr)-90 and 3 neutrons.
𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐 𝑼 + 𝟏𝟎𝒏 𝟐𝟑𝟔
𝟗𝟐 𝑼
𝟏𝟒𝟏
𝟓𝟔 𝑩𝒂 + 𝟗𝟐
𝟑𝟔 𝑲𝒓 + 3 𝟏𝟎𝒏 + energy
 The reaction where there is mass defect, source of energy is given by
E = MC2
 Any isotope with atomic number (Z) greater than 83 is unstable.
Nuclear Fusion
 Is the union of lighter nuclei to form heavy nucleus. It is believed that fusion is source of
sun’s energy.
𝟐
i.e 𝟏𝑯 + 𝟑𝟏𝑯 𝟏
𝟐 𝑯𝒆 + 𝟏
𝟎𝒏 + energy

Dangers of radioactive emission

 When a human being is exposed to radioactive products, the following are some of the
effects;
 Burns
 Child born with serious abnormalities
 Sterility
 Cell mutation which is passed to future generations

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Measures when handling radioactive substances

 Never touch with bare hands (use triceps)

 Never point radioactive substance towards a person
 Food should not be taken near the source it may be easily contaminated
 Never smock or drink near radioactive source
 Put on special clothes
 Use thick-walled lead container when transferring radioactive sample.
Ways of detecting radioactive emission
a) Photographic plates
 Alpha and beta particles produce visible tracks in the plates where they pass. But these
are not good for detecting gamma radiation has insufficient ionization.
b) Scintillation counter
 When beta and alpha particles or gamma rays flow, they produce a flash of light in a
crystal. Zinc sulphide and silver crystals for alpha and beta radiation, sodium iodide and
tellurium for gamma-rays
c) Spark counter
 When alpha is brought closer to gauze of spark counter, it ionizes the air. The ionization
of air causes sparks between the gauze and the wire. If a beta is source is used insufficient
ions are produced for sparkling to take place.
d) Geiger Muller tube
 Is a tube which contains argon gas at low pressure. The end is sealed by thin mica
window to allow alpha particle to pass through the argon gas.
 When the particle enters the chamber the argon gas is ionized by these particles. Then the
argon become becomes a good conductor of current after being ionized.
e) Ionization detector (chamber)
 Ionization chamber is a can with coaxial wire electrode. When beta or alpha particles
flow in it, they give a current
f) Electroscope
 When beta and alpha particles pass the metal cap of the electroscope, the leaf falls
because the radiation particles ionize the air around the electroscope. The detection is not
good for gamma radiation
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g) Cloud chamber
 Shows the tracks of radioactive particles. The tracks of α-particles are straight and thick.
Β-particles are thin and straight and γ-rays do not collide with electrons and it enough.
 When radioactive passes through air which is supersaturated with the vapour of liquid, it
produces ions that act as a center on which the liquid can condense. A line of liquid
droplets is formed along the track of the particle.

Uses/Application of Radioactivity
1. Nuclear power generation
 Radioactivity of an element like uranium-235 in a nuclear power station generates
power called nuclear power.
2. Agriculture/biochemical tracers
 Radioactive phosphorous is used to assess the different abilities of plants to take up
phosphorous from different types of phosphate fertilizer.
3. Industrial
 In industries, radioactivity is used to monitor the thickness of metal. The thickness of
a metal sheet can be monitored during manufacture by passing it between a gamma
ray source and stable detector. The thicker the sheet, the greater the absorption of
gamma rays.
4. Medical (radiotherapy)
 Gamma rays from strong cobalt radioisotope are used to treat cancer cell. Cancer cells
are destroyed by gamma radiation.
 Gamma rays are also used in hospitals for x-ray especially for inner part of patients of
the treatment is called radiotherapy
5. Sterilization/food preservation
 Gamma rays are used to sterilize medical instruments and dressings because gamma
ray’s kills’ bacteria.
 Gamma rays are also used to preserve food as they kill bacteria which cause rotting.
6. Carbon dating
 Used to date archeological sample. This uses the half-life of carbon-14

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 The activity of carbon-14 taken from an ancient piece of human bone can compared
with that of an equal mass of C-14 from a bone of living human.
 From this comparison, it is possible to estimate the time that has passed since the
bone was part of the human being.
7. Location position
 Radioactive liquid is added to the liquid being carried by the underground pipe. This
allows leakage to be detected since soil close to the leak becomes radioactive.
 It is advised to use short half-life radiation because it will not cause permanent
contamination to the soil.

Questions

1. Explain the following

a) An alpha particle is same as a nucleus of a helium
b) A beta particle is same as an electron
2. Discus the difference between the nuclear radiation in terms of
a) Ionization effect
b) Penetration power
c) Deflection in an electric field
d) Deflection in magnetic field
3. What type of decay is involved in the following and complete the equation?
𝟐𝟓𝟒 𝟒
a) 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑭𝑴 𝟗𝟖 𝑪𝒇 + 𝟐𝑯
𝟐𝟒 𝟎
b) 𝟏𝟏 𝑵𝒂 _ + −𝟏 𝜷

4. The following is part of uranium decay series

𝟐𝟑𝟓 I 𝟐𝟑𝟒 II 𝟐𝟑𝟒 III 𝑨
𝟗𝟐 𝑼 𝟗𝟎 𝑻𝒉 𝟗𝟏 𝑷𝒐 𝒁𝑿

a) Name the particle emitted in step 1

b) If a beta particle is emitted in step III, find the value of A and Z
5. A radioactive sample has mass of 20g and half-life of 100yrs. Calculate mass remaining
after 500yrs
6. A radioactive sample has mass of 32g and half-life of 20days. What sample remains after
2days?
7. A radioactive has a half-life of 60minutes. Calculate fraction left after 2 days.

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