Industrial Crops & Products 208 (2024) 117755

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Industrial Crops & Products

journal homepage: [Link]/locate/indcrop

Development and testing of an oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) fruit

digester process for kernel free in crude palm oil production
Mohd Hafizz Wondi a, *, Nur Izzah Nabilah Haris b, d, Rosnah Shamsudin c, Robiah Yunus d,
Maimunah Mohd Ali e, Aditya Hutama Iswardi f
a
Faculty of Plantation and Agrotechnology, Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Sarawak, Kampus Mukah, 96400 Mukah, Sarawak, Malaysia
b
Institute of Ecosystem Science Borneo, Universiti Putra Malaysia Kampus Bintulu, 97000 Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia
c
Department of Process and Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
d
Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
e
Department of Food Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
f
Department of Biological & Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Current palm oil extraction techniques involve the digestion and pressing of entire oil palm fruitlets. However,
Mesocarp and nut separator the coexistence of mesocarp fibre and nut during pressing could inevitably result in oil loss due to fragmentation
Centrifugal separator of the fibre and nut. The anticipated separation of palm mesocarp fibre and kernel prior to pressing is a potential
Oil palm digester
solution to the problem. In order to enhance the extraction of crude palm oil, a digester machine with kernel free
Palm oil mill
Oil extraction rate
has been created. Each machine iteration consists of two processes. The first phase involved severing and
removing the mesocarp fibre from the kernel (seed), as well as removing all mesocarp produced by the process,
while the second phase involved releasing the nut. The effectiveness of the created machine was evaluated under
various conditions, such as speed (700, 900, 1100, 1300, and 1500 rpm) and processing time (20, 30, and 40 s).
The optimal condition, which consisted of a rotational speed of 1500 rpm and a separation time of 40 s, was
evaluated further under loading weight (2.50, 3.75, and 5.00 kg). The optimal separation was attained with a
separation speed of 1100 rpm, a time of 30 s, and a loading mass of 2.50 g, according to the results. Under these
conditions, the machine could achieve a separation efficiency of 94.89% and a kernel disintegration rate of
4.29%. The investigation’s findings benefit the palm oil industry by eliminating processes like winnowing and
nut separation through effective implementation of the kernel-free digester machine.

1. Introduction oxidative stability, and long shelf life, palm oil is also utilized in the
global food industry (Rosnani et al., 2017).
Originating in Africa, the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq) is now Fruit sterilization, fruit loosening/stripping, fruit digestion, oil
extensively cultivated throughout Asia such ad Malaysia, Indonesia, extraction, and oil clarification are the traditional steps in palm oil
Thailand and Philippines. Palm oil is extracted from the mesocarp/fiber extraction (milling) (Osei-Amponsah et al., 2012; Owolarafe et al., 2008,
of the oil palm fruitlet, while palm kernel oil is derived from the hard 2002). After the palm fruitlets are separated from its bunches, they are
shell encircling the kernel (Abbas et al., 2006; Tan et al., 2009). Palm oil digested and reconditioned in a digester to loosen the mesocarp prior to
is utilized in the production of refined products such as cooking oil, entering a screw press for oil extraction (Ilyas et al., 2021; Sivasothy
margarine, ghee, and shortening and the popularity of palm oil is rising et al., 1993; Vincent et al., 2014). The majority of these operations are
due to the public awareness of its rich nutritional-content of vitamin A essential for obtaining a high oil yield and a high kernel extraction rate
(carotene) and vitamin E (tocopherols and tocotrienols), which have (KER) while preserving acceptable oil quality. The values of these pa­
antioxidant property and is believed to be able to inhibit several types of rameters, especially the oil yield, represent the mill’s performance called
cancer (Choo et al., 1996; Han and Choo, 2015; Kushairi et al., 2018; Lau as oil extraction rate (OER). OER represents the proportion of crude
et al., 2006; Nagendran et al., 2000). Due to its competitive price, high palm oil (CPO) derived from a known quantity of fresh fruit bunches

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mohdhafizz@[Link] (M.H. Wondi).

[Link]
Received 3 July 2023; Received in revised form 27 September 2023; Accepted 30 October 2023
Available online 17 November 2023
0926-6690/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M.H. Wondi et al. Industrial Crops & Products 208 (2024) 117755

(FFB) being processed. the country’s overall income. Notably, this endeavour contributes to
The role of the digester in a palm oil mill is to macerate the mesocarp Sustainable Development Goal 9 (SDG 9), ’Responsible consumption
from the kernel while also rupturing the oil-carrying cell in preparation and production,’ by reducing oil loss during the production process,
for oil extraction. By disintegrating the oil-bearing cell, loosening the which typically results in effluent waste.
mesocarp during digestion enhances oil release. After digestion, the Consequently, the objective of this study was to develop a kernel-free
digested mash (a mixture of mesocarp fibre and nut) is subjected to an digester machine capable of separating the mesocarp directly from the
oil extraction procedure using a helical screw at the screw press. O. K. intact oil palm fruitlets, resulting in an increase in oil output and a
Owolarafe et al. (2008) report that excessive screw press pressure leads reduction in broken kernels, as well as an improvement in oil quality. It
to increased nut fracturing, estimated to be as high as 40%, resulting in is also anticipated that the findings of this research will contribute to our
significant kernel loss. Due to the fact that the fruit digested mash is a understanding of the separation of palm mesocarp from its nut. The
heterogeneous mixture of nut, fibre, and fluid (oil and water), 50 bar is development of a novel kernel-free digester machine is expected to assist
the maximum permissible press pressure to prevent nut from rupture in resolving the problems of nut breakage and oil loss in palm oil
(Stork Amsterdam, 1960). processing.
Further, 4–5% residual oil persists in palm pressed fibre (PPF) after
oil extraction using the conventional method of screw press (Nur Suli­ 2. Methodology
hatimarsyila et al., 2019). During palm oil mill processing, excess oil
contributes to oil loss. If the market price of CPO is RM 2309 per tonne 2.1. Design of digester and separation processes
and Malaysia produces approximately 19 million tonnes of CPO in 2019,
a 1% oil loss will contribute to an anticipated RM 2.3 billion loss in An idea was proposed to extract the oil without the present of kernel
revenue. As a consequence, research institutes and the industry have and nut by using a kernel-free digester machine prior to the oil extrac­
employed a variety of strategies to address this problem. tion as shows in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. The semi-continuous digestion process
Milling parameters also affect the quality of crude palm oil. In fact, consists of two steps process for every cycle and each step was controlled
excessive extraction pressure tends to fracture the kernel during with the timer operation. The main objective of the first step was to cut
extraction. The broken kernel will release a small quantity of kernel oil, and remove the mesocarp fiber from its nut (seed) as well as to remove
which will contaminate the crude palm oil and reduce the commercial all the mesocarp produced from the process. While the second step was
value of the final palm oil product. This fractured kernel will reduce the to discharge the nut after completing the first step. Both steps
rate of kernel oil extraction, which will have a negative impact on the comprising cutting and mesocarp/nut discharging were assisted by the
company’s earnings. In fact, kernels are valuable, and oil extracted from rotation of rotating disc. Two-steps process was proposed instead of
kernels is more expensive than standard palm oil. In addition, if we single step because of the un-complete removal of fiber from the nut
intend to use solvent extraction in the future palm oil milling process, oil tend to occur if the process of cutting and removal were done at the same
extraction from mesocarp without seeds will require less solvent. time. Based on Fig. 2, the process starts when the sterilized palm fruitlets
Therefore, prior to screw pressing, the disintegration and separation are loaded inside the blade wall cylinder through feeding hopper at the
of palm mesocarp fibre from kernels is a feasible method for increasing top. Motor (BA100L, Branco, Italy) located on the top of machine is set at
oil extraction yield. Numerous researchers have been attracted to the the desired speed ranging from 700 to 1500 rpm by using inverter to
palm mesocarp and nut separator due to its potential to decrease kernel rotate the rotating disc. The revolution of rotating disc will spin the
breakage while simultaneously increasing oil yield. Numerous studies sterilized fruitlets. High speed anti-clockwise rotation throw the palm
on the separation of mesocarp from nut shells by various techniques fruitlets outwardly under the influence of centrifugal force. Thus creates
have already been published. West African researchers investigated a frictional contact between fruitlets and blades (Fig. 4) which eventu­
horizontal palm nut-pulp separators installed after fruit digestion; these ally cut and peel the mesocarp. During the process, the dehusked
separators minimised nut fracture and reduced excessive oil loss from mesocarp will flow out continuously through a gap between rotating
pressed fibres (Nduka et al., 2012). Separating the mesocarp from the disc and cylinder body. After the first step of separation process is
nuts prior to screw press extraction has been shown to reduce nut completed, the mesocarp will be completely removed from the nut and
fracturing. the side discharge chute will open. The side door was designed to
However, no commercially available technology exists for removing discharge the nut through the chute assisted with the centrifugal force
mesocarp fibre prior to large-scale screw pressing. Vincent et al. (2016) generated by rotating disc. The rotating disc develops a centrifugal force
report that a compact palm fruitlets dehusker was developed in Malaysia for mesocarp peeling purpose. However, during this process, nut
to remove the mesocarp from nuts. The dehusking of palm mesocarp cracking should be avoided since the broken kernel will contaminate the
using perforated sharp edges has been studied, with orientation of the collected mesocarp. The desired output at the end should be a complete
sharp edges and dehusking time taken into consideration. This method separation of mesocarp fiber from nuts as well as getting a low broken
effectively dehusked the mesocarp; however, the equipment used to kernel. There is no benchmark on the previous technology regarding the
extract the dehusked nut is batch-processed and manually operated, mesocarp and nut separation process as the technology still at an
making it unsuitable for large-scale production. In addition, there were emerging stage. For the study, the target mesocarp removal was is at
no studies on the impact of separation process parameters on oil yield least 90% which basically to ensure minimal the negative effect on the
and oil quality. These are crucial parameters that cannot be disregarded, mill oil loss, while, the broken kernel as shown in should not be more
as they have an effect on profit and production efficiency. than 10% to obtain minimum kernel loss.
Using a centrifugal digester to separate palm mesocarp fibres from The digester machine consist of a hopper at the top of machine, an
kernels prior to screw pressing is an emerging strategy for increasing oil internal chamber and a nut outlet as shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. The
extraction yield in this investigation. By removing nuts from the mesh machine internal chamber also comprises a broadcaster, a rotating disc,
(fibre) prior to oil extraction, the problem of nut fracturing is completely and a mesocarp fiber outlet. There is a serrated blade installed inside the
eliminated, allowing the pressure to be increased even further to internal chamber used to cut the mesocarp fiber. Further, the rotating
maximise oil yield. In-house development of a continuous palm oil surface is attached with a number of sharp edges used to assist the
mesocarp and nut digester that employs centrifugal force to reduce cutting process. The rotating disc and broadcaster are attached together
digestion time by 97%. The findings will likely aid in the design and and driven simultaneously by the electric motor. A belt and pulleys are
development of palm oil milling processes, particularly in the Malaysian used for the power transmission from the motor to the broadcaster and
oil palm oil industry. Considering that Malaysia produces approximately rotating disc (Fig. 5). The electric motor with capacity of 2.3 kW is
40% of the world’s palm oil, increasing oil extraction yield will increase installed at the top of machine for the flexibility of mesocarp discharge

2
M.H. Wondi et al. Industrial Crops & Products 208 (2024) 117755

Fig. 1. a) Semi-continuous kernel-free digester machine setup at palm oil mill; b) Internal component of machine.

Fig. 2. Illustration of mesocarp and nut separation process.

at the bottom. However, bigger clearance will allow the nuts to pass through it and
A gap/clearance between the rotating disc and the walls was contaminate the separated mesocarp fiber. The nut discharge outlet is
designed according to the size of mesocarp fiber (2 – 5 mm) to ensure designed at the same level with top rotating disc to allow for continuous
that the detached mesocarp fibers are able to exit through the gap and nut removal when the disc is revolving.
into the mesocarp outlet chute at the bottom of the system (Wondi et al.,
2021). If the clearance is too small, the mesocarp fiber will stuck be­
tween the gap and this will stop continuous mesocarp discharge.

3
M.H. Wondi et al. Industrial Crops & Products 208 (2024) 117755

Fig. 3. A machine bottom parts (1. Internal chamber; 2. Broadcaster; 3. Nut discharge; 4. Mesocarp fiber discharge; 5. Rotating disc; 6. Bearing; 7. Gap of mesocarp
discharge; 8. Nut discharge door actuator). (Wondi et al., 2023).

Fig. 4. A machine process mechanism a) during separation (1. Palm Fruitlets; 2. Mesocarp), b) after separation process (3. Palm Nut).

2.2. Performance testing process were weighed by a digital electronic balance (SB12001, Mettler
Toledo, Switzerland) and the recovery percentage was calculated using
The level of performance process parameters are given in Table 1. Eqs. (1 and 2) (Wondi et al., 2020)
The performance tests were carried out at different rotational speeds
Weight of mesocarp (g)
(700–1500 rpm) and retention time (20–40 second). Furthermore, Mesocarp recovery (%) = × 100% (1)
Weight of fruitlets processed (g)
collected mesocarp and nuts recovered percentage were calculated as
performance indicator in determining the optimum speed and time for
separation process. The collected mesocarp and nuts recovered from the

4
M.H. Wondi et al. Industrial Crops & Products 208 (2024) 117755

Fig. 5. An orthographic view of assembled machine with its component (1. Internal chamber top cover; 2. Body shell; 3. Nut discharge; 4. Shaft pulley; 5. Fruits
hopper; 6. Drive motor; 7. Motor stand support; 8. Broadcaster shaft; 9. Internal chamber; 10. Machine main frame; 11. Mesocarp fiber discharge). (Wondi
et al., 2023).

2.4. Sample preparation

Table 1
Experimental variables for performance testing of digester machine.
Ripe oil palm fresh fruit bunches (FFB) of the Tenera variety were
Process parameters Levels obtained from Sime Darby Tenammaram Estate’s oil palm estate. Ac­
Rotational speed, rpm 700, 900, 1100, 1300 and 1500 cording to the (Malaysian Palm Oil Board) MPOB grading manual’s
Separation time, s 20, 30 and 40 minimum ripeness standard (MRS), a bunch with yellowish-orange
Loading weight, kg 2.50, 3.75 and 5.00
exterior fruits was considered ripe (MPOB, 2015). The obtained FFB
was then cleansed to remove any foreign matter. The FFB samples were
Weight of nut (g) sterilized in a continuous sterilizer at a palm oil mill facility for 140 min
Nut recovery (%) = × 100% (2) at 100 ◦ C. The sterilization treatment was carried out in order to limit
Weight of fruitlets processed (g)
enzyme hydrolysis and loosen fruitlets from their bunch. The fruitlets
The obtained nuts were divided into two groups based on nut con­ were then manually separated from the cluster. Physical and mechanical
dition: intact and broken. Nuts with no severe shell breaking are clas­ parameters of detached palm fruitlets were determined at random. All of
sified as intact, but nuts with damaged complete shell and kernel are the trials were carried out on the same day that the fruitlets were
classified as broken. Eq. 3 was used to compute the proportion of harvested.
cracked nuts (Wondi et al., 2020). The goal for mesocarp removal was
set to be at least 90%, with a broken kernel of no more than 10%. 2.5. Performance evaluation
Weight of broken nut (g)
Broken nut (%) = × 100% (3) 2.5.1. Performance indicators used
Weight of total nut collected (g)
The testing on the semi-continuous digester machine were carried
out at different rotational speeds (700, 900, 1100, 1300 and 1500 rpm),
2.3. Effect of rotating disc speed and time on separation efficiency different separation time (20, 30 and 40 s) and different loading rate
(2.50, 3.75 and 5.00 kg) as stated in the Table 1. The output from both
The effect of rotational speed to the separation process was investi­ machine discharge (mesocarp and nut) were collected carefully to
gated to optimize the processing conditions for the newly fabricated determine the mesocarp and nut recovery for process optimization.
machine. A motor inverter (VFD-M, Delta, Taiwan) was used to control Then, the separation efficiency was calculated based on the effectiveness
the rotational speeds of 700, 900, 1100, 1300 and 1500 rpm. These of separation between individual mesocarp and nut. The percentage of
speeds are selected based on the results obtained from experiments the separation efficiency was determined using Eq. (4). The average
conducted on the preliminary prototype. mesocarp content used in this experiment was 75.13%.
Furthermore, the effect of separation time was also being tested to
Mesocarp recovered (g)
obtain the optimum separation process time of fabricated machine. A Separation efficiency (%) = × 100% (4)
Mesocarp content (g)
PLC (Delta VFD-E, Taiwan) was installed so that the separation time can
be adjusted for experiment purpose. The timer setting is also inter­ There was no benchmark on the previous technology regarding on
connected to the actuator door for nut removal at the of separation the kernel-free digester process as the technology still at an emerging
process. The selected separation time were 20, 30 and 40 s as tabulated stage. For this study, the target for mesocarp recovery was set to be at
in Table 1. least 90% to ensure minimal effect on the mill oil loss. Meanwhile, the

5
M.H. Wondi et al. Industrial Crops & Products 208 (2024) 117755

broken kernel should not be more than 10% of the total fruitlets being 89.74% and 67.63% for separation efficiency and mesocarp recovery at
processed to obtain minimum kernel loss. Nut cracking should be 40 s, respectively.
avoided since the kernel may break and contaminate the collected As the separation speed was increased, the colour of the mesocarp
mesocarp. The desired output at the end is a complete separation of grew noticeably darker (Fig. 6), indicating the existence of a small,
mesocarp fiber from nuts with low broken kernel. fractured kernel shell in the mesocarp. Some mesocarp remained
attached to the nuts at lower rotating speeds due to insufficient cutting
3. Results impact by centrifugal force. The weight of the recovered nuts was
increased by the presence of unseparated mesocarp, resulting in a larger
3.1. A mesocarp and nut separator machine performance evaluation percentage of nut recovery. Alternatively, high rotational speed nuts
have little or no mesocarp remaining. However, the shells of the nuts
Table 2 highlights the separation efficiency of mesocarp from nut at cracked and mixed with the recovered mesocarp at a faster rate,
rotating speeds of 700, 900, 1100, 1300, and 1500 rpm with retention contaminating the retrieved crude oil with kernel oil. To produce pure
times of 20, 30, and 40 s. From the findings, there were no significant crude oil, there should be no shell or kernel in the mesocarp fibre.
differences for separation times of 30 and 40 s for all rotational speeds
except for 700 rpm. For separation times of 30 and 40 ss, the trends for 3.2. Effect of rotational speed on broken nut percentage
mesocarp and nut recoveries as well as separation efficiency were almost
similar. Within 700–1500 rpm of rotational speed and 20 s of separation Table 3 demonstrates the percentage of each nut categories after the
time, the results revealed a consistent improvement in mesocarp re­ separation at different speeds (700, 900, 1100, 1300 and 1500 rpm) and
covery from 61.83% to 71.34%. It can be observed that the mesocarp processing times (20, 30 and 40 s). Broken nut percentage data is
was subjected to an adequate cutting effect at a faster speed, in which essential to decide on the best condition for the best separation effi­
more mesocarp was retrieved. ciency. No broken nuts were detected at rotational speed of 700 rpm
Increasing mesocarp recovery boosted separation efficiency from possibly because of the insufficient cutting effect of centrifugal force,
82.53% to 71.34% for rotational speeds ranging from 700–1500 rpm at and subsequently lower force to break nut shells.
20 s of separation time. Lower separation speed resulted in decreased At 20 s, 30 s, and 40 s of separation time, the broken nut percentage
cutting force on the mesocarp layer, resulting in a lower percentage of increased significantly (P < 0.05) as the rotating speed increased (900,
mesocarp recovery. Furthermore, when the rotational speed increased 1100, 1300, and 1500 rpm). The broken nut percentage values were
from 700 rpm to 1500 rpm, nut recovery reduced from 38.04% to revealed to have been increased by the different separation times. The
28.32% at a separation time of 20 s. The mesocarp recovered and sep­ lowest broken nut percentage (0.75%) was obtained at the slowest speed
aration efficiency rose as the rotating speed increased, however nut (900 rpm) and shortest separation time (20 s), while the highest broken
recovered declined. At 700 rpm, there were significant differences nut percentage (8.11%) was obtained at the fastest speed (1500 rpm)
(P < 0.05) obtained for all separation times with the highest values of and longest separation time (40 s), respectively. On the other hand, it
can be noted that no significant difference was obtained for the intact
Table 2 nut at different rotational speeds except for 1100 rpm with the highest
Performance of separation process at different variables. value of 96.85% at separation time of 20 s. This is primarily due to
Rotational Separation Separation Percentage Percentage
excessive centrifugal force caused by a fast rotational speed breaking the
speed (rpm) time (s) efficiency, mesocarp Nut shell layer of nuts. Although higher speeds allowed for improved sepa­
(%) recovered, recovered, ration efficiency, they also caused significant breaks in the nut shell.
(%) (%) This has a deleterious influence on the kernel inside the nut. The soft
700 20 82.53 61.83 ± 0.46a 38.04 ± 1.05a kernel would rupture into smaller fragments, resulting in massive kernel
± 1.43a loss. In this investigation, the worst cracked nut percentage produced is
30 85.64 66.73 ± 1.59b 35.09 ± 1.63b still less than the industrial standard of palm oil processing parameters
± 1.11b
40 89.74 67.63 32.40 ± 1.64c
(20%) (Stork Amsterdam, 1960). A maximum restriction of 10% frac­
± 2.63c ± 0.22ab tured nut was set to assure improved oil quality extracted from mesocarp
900 20 87.87 64.28 ± 0.85a 35.64 ± 0.63a separated using the designed equipment. As a result, all machine con­
± 1.45a ditions tested produced an appropriate level of fractured nut percentage.
30 91.63 68.44 ± 1.86b 31.36 ± 1.74b
± 2.53b
40 91.99 68.85 ± 1.11b 31.11 3.3. Effect of loading capacity on separation efficiency
± 0.88b ± 0.32ab
1100 20 91.92 65.99 ± 0.43a 32.42 ± 1.76a Loading capacity is another main parameter that influences separa­
± 1.90a tion efficiency rather than rotational speed and separation time. The
30 94.75 70.74 ± 0.42b 29.35 ± 0.89b
± 1.00b
digester machine was designed with a maximum capacity of 5 kg of
40 94.89 71.02 ± 2.45b 29.04 ± 1.46c fruits. In this part, the loading capacity was analyzed at three levels;
± 0.65b 50%, 75% and 100% of full capacity which are 2.5 kg, 3.75 kg and
1300 20 91.67 68.09 ± 2.09a 31.46 ± 1.08a 5.0 kg of fruits, respectively. The test was conducted at a chosen setting
± 2.74a
based on the results of Table 3 (1500 rpm of rotation speed and 40 s of
30 95.79 72.80 ± 0.08b 28.97 ± 2.56b
± 2.98b separation time). Table 4 shows the separation efficiency percentage of
40 96.01 72.99 ± 1.94b 28.45 ± 1.08c mesocarp recovered, nut recovered and broken nut at different loading
± 2.34a capacities. The separation efficiency and the mesocarp recovered were
1500 20 95.65 71.34 ± 0.06a 28.32 ± 1.11a found to decrease significantly (P < 0.05) from 98.05% to 96.86% and
± 1.11a
30 97.03 73.08 ± 1.14b 26.22 ± 1.01b
from 80.35% to 77.34% with increasing loading capacity from 2.50 kg
± 1.58b to 5.00 kg, respectively. On the other hand, the number of nuts recov­
40 97.32 73.12 ± 2.94b 26.88 ered increased from 36.94% to 39.02% with the increase of loading
± 1.63b ± 1.26ab capacity. More mesocarp fiber were still attached to the nuts when the
Note: The collected small nut shell were neglected due to difficulty to be loading capacity was increased due to insufficient cutting effect. In order
observed visually. Data are mean values ± standard deviation. Different letters to achieve complete separation, the separation time should be length­
indicate significant difference (P < 0.05) by Tukey’s test within the same row. ened. However, it possessed a huge risk of causing high broken nut

6
M.H. Wondi et al. Industrial Crops & Products 208 (2024) 117755

Fig. 6. (a) Dried mesocarp and (b) Nuts conditions after 20 s separation at 700, 900, 1100, 1300, and 1500 rpm.

percentage, exceeding the 10% threshold limit. At a constant separation

Table 3
time of 40 s, the percentage of broken nuts decreased significantly from
Categories of nuts collected after separation at different speeds and time.
8.24% to 4.97% as the loading capacity was increased. Less nuts shell
Rotational speed (rpm) Separation time (s) Nut categories (%) was found to be cracked at a loading capacity of 5.00 kg compared to
Intact nut Broken nut 2.50 and 3.75 kg, respectively.
700 20 100 ± 0.00 ND
30 100 ± 0.00 ND
40 100 ± 0.00 ND 3.4. Optimization of mesocarp and nut separation
900 20 99.34 ± 0.96a 0.75
± 1.54a Response Surface Methodology (RSM) with central composite design
30 98.25 ± 0.74a 1.90 (CCD) was used to optimise mesocarp fibre and nut separation utilizing a
± 1.23b
40 97.38 ± 1.05a 2.75 ± 1.75c
kernel-free digester machine. The effect of rotating speed and time on
1100 20 96.85 ± 1.74a 3.92 separation efficiency and nut breakage was investigated in order to
± 0.83a improve the process condition and separation efficiency.
30 95.75 ± 0.74b 4.01
± 1.86b
3.4.1. Fitting the response surface model
40 95.24 4.88 ± 1.72c
± 0.63ab The experiment design for mesocarp and nut separation was three-
1300 20 95.75 ± 1.33a 4.34 level factorial with 20 set tests. Table 5 shows the experimental data
± 1.46a for separation efficiency and broken nut percentage.
30 94.23 ± 1.75a 5.85 The highest separation efficiency (97.60%) was achieved with a
± 1.75b
40 93.74 ± 0.94a 6.95 ± 0.94c
rotational speed of 1500 rpm, a separation time of 30 s, and a mass of
1500 20 94.74 ± 1.87a 5.73 3.75 kg. Meanwhile, the lowest broken nut percentage was observed for
± 1.43a all separation periods and mass at separation speed 700 rpm since no
30 93.23 ± 1.03a 6.75 broken nuts were detected on these parameters. The analysis of variance
± 0.64b
40 92.78 ± 0.74a 8.11 ± 1.21c
Table 5
*ND: not detected Experimental data of oil yield and percentage of broken nut.
Note: The collected small nut shell were neglected due to difficulty to be
observed visually. Run Variables Responses

Data are mean values ± standard deviation. Different letters indicate significant Rotational Separation Capacity Separation Broken
difference (P < 0.05) by Tukey’s test within the same row. speed time (s), X2 (kg), X3 efficiency nut (%),
(rpm), X1 (%), Y1 Y2

1 700 30 3.75 87.25 0.00

Table 4 2 1500 40 2.50 97.32 7.89
Effect of loading rate on the separation performance at 1500 rpm of speed and 3 1100 30 3.75 91.78 2.15
40 s of time. 4 1100 30 3.75 92.72 3.10
5 700 20 2.50 83.72 0.00
Loading Separation Percentage Percentage Percentage 6 1100 30 3.75 91.96 1.84
capacity efficiency, mesocarp Nut Broken Nut, 7 1500 40 5.00 95.94 5.33
(kg) (%) recovered, recovered, (%) 8 1100 30 5.00 90.06 1.34
(%) (%) 9 1100 40 3.75 92.63 4.76
2.50 98.05 80.35 ± 2.06a 36.94 8.24 ± 2.22a 10 700 40 5.00 84.25 0.00
± 1.32a ± 0.75ab 11 1100 20 3.75 87.75 0.39
3.75 97.45 78.46 ± 0.95b 38.28 ± 1.75a 5.25 ± 2.07b 12 1100 30 2.50 94.04 4.49
± 1.07b 13 700 40 2.50 89.73 0.21
5.00 96.86 77.34 ± 1.64ab 39.02 ± 1.45b 4.97 ± 1.04c 14 1500 20 5.00 92.05 0.41
± 2.84c 15 1100 30 3.75 91.81 1.65
16 1500 30 3.75 97.60 5.84
Note: The collected tiny nut shell were neglected due to the difficulty of 17 700 20 5.00 82.55 0.00
observing them visually. 18 1100 30 3.75 92.78 2.56
Data are mean values ± standard deviation. Different letters indicate significant 19 1100 30 3.75 91.52 5.63
difference (P < 0.05) by Tukey’s test within the same row. 20 1500 20 2.50 95.41 6.70

7
M.H. Wondi et al. Industrial Crops & Products 208 (2024) 117755

(ANOVA), as shown in Table 6, was used to explore the influence of each variables. Each variable was represented by independent variables
independent variable (rotational speed (X1), separation time (X2), and speed (X1), time (X2), and capacity (X3), as well as dependent variables
loading capacity (X3) on the response of separation efficiency and separation efficiency (Y1) and broken nut (Y2). The equations were
broken nut %. The importance of each condition was determined by utilised to assess the effect of process factors on separation efficiency and
looking at its p-value. If the p-value is less than 0.05, it suggests that the nut condition of palm fruitlets.
response variable (separation efficiency and broken nut %) is significant.
The p-value and R2 value of the chosen model for the experimental Y1 = 56⋅29753 + 0⋅009912 X1 + 1⋅55602 X2 − 0⋅200262 X3 − 0⋅00006 ×
10− 4 X1X2 + 4⋅77 × 10− 4 X1X3 − 2⋅3328 × 10− 2 X2X3 + 1⋅2683× 10− 6 X21 −
(Table 6) data were calculated to determine the overall model’s signif­
icance. The estimated p-value was used to assess whether the results 0⋅020321 X22 − 0⋅114018 X23 (5)
were significant enough to reject the null hypothesis (Haris et al., 2019). Y2 = − 2⋅84252 + 0⋅009058 X1 − 0⋅227678 X2 + 0⋅345969 X3 + 1⋅84 × 10− 4
Both the separation efficiency and cracked nut % models’ generated X1X2 – 2⋅16 × 10− 3 X1X3 + 0⋅035116 X2X3 (6)
p-values were determined to be significant (p < 0.05). At 95% confi­
dence level, the results indicated that the model is significant between ANOVA was used to test the significance and accuracy of the equa­
the variables and answers. tion further. The acquired results, as shown in Table 6, reveal that the oil
The R2 value is required to construct and test the equations and yield well was fitted with a second-order polynomial model, whereas the
model for genuine response surface appropriateness. In this investiga­ fractured nut was fitted with a quadratic model. The "Lack of Fit F-value"
tion, the computed R2 values for separation efficiency and broken nut of separation efficiency and cracked nut are 4.64 and 0.3484, respec­
percentage were 0.9773 and 0.8656, respectively, indicating that the tively, implying that the results are not significant relative to the pure
model could not account for just 2.27% and 13.44% of the entire vari­ error. The p-values of 0.0588 and 0.9105 for separation efficiency and
ation in data. An R2 value greater than 0.75 is appropriate for the cracked nut indicate that a "Lack of Fit F-value" for this model is not
building of an optimization statistical model (Peng et al., 2019). significant. As a result, the experimental data can be properly fit.
Furthermore, the experimental data was strongly correlated with the
anticipated data (Fig. 7). To comprehend the nature of fitting, a normal 3.4.2. Analysis of response surface model
probability of residuals was also noticed. The fitting of the regression Figs. 8 and 9 exhibit 3-dimensional response surface plots of sepa­
data indicates that it is close to a straight line, indicating that the error ration efficiency and broken nut percentage as a function of independent
terms are normally distributed. As a result, the hypothesis of the analysis variables such as rotating speed (700–1500 rpm), separation duration
is satisfied. According to the F-value and R2, the second-order poly­ (20–40 s), and loading capacity (2.50–5.00 kg). Separation efficiency
nomial model is appropriate for the association between separation ef­ and broken nut percentage are affected by rotating speed and separation
ficiency and cracked nut percentage. time, with loading capacity being more important than separation time
Based on the use of RSM, the second-order polynomial model Eqs. (5) and speed. According to Figs. 8 and 9, the amount of recovered meso­
and (6) reveal an empirical link between the response and the input carp fibre increased with rotational speed, whereas the amount of
recovered nut decreased with separation time and capacity.
The response surface graphs, despite not displaying a typical saddle
Table 6 shape, provides valuable insights given the constraints of our experi­
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the response surface second-order polynomial mental setup. The manipulated variables, including separation time,
model of the fitted model. rotational speed, and capacity, were deliberately confined to a limited
Source Sum of DF Mean F- p-value R2 range due to the limitations of the kernel-free digester. Within this
squares square value limited parameter space, we discerned critical trends in separation ef­
Separation efficiency
ficiency and broken nut percentage. These insights reveal localized op­
Model 337.63 9 37.51 47.92 < 0.0001 * 0.9773 tima, allowing us to identify parameter combinations that enhance
X1-Speed 258.16 1 258.16 329.76 < 0.0001 * separation efficiency and minimize broken nut percentage within the
X2-Time 33.74 1 33.74 43.10 < 0.0001 * confines of our machine’s capabilities. This recognition of practical and
X3-Capacity 23.66 1 23.66 30.22 0.0003 *
context-specific optima provides a foundation for optimization strate­
X1X2 0.4551 1 0.4551 0.5813 0.4634
X1X3 0.4552 1 0.4552 0.5815 0.4633 gies tailored to real-world operational limitations, ensuring that our
X2X3 0.6802 1 0.6802 0.8689 0.3732 findings remain highly relevant in optimizing our process despite the
2
X1 0.1133 1 0.1133 0.1447 0.7116 constraints imposed by the machine’s specifications.
2
X2 11.36 1 11.36 14.51 0.0034 * At 900 rpm rotating speed, separation efficiency increased with
2
X3 0.0873 1 0.0873 0.1115 0.7454
Residual 7.83 10 0.7829
shorter separation time. When the rotational speed was increased
Lack of fit 6.44 5 1.29 4.64 0.0588 further, separation efficiency reached a peak before declining
Pure error 1.39 5 0.2777 constantly. However, as the sample mass increased from 2.5 to 5 kg, the
Corrected 345.46 19 separation efficiency declined. In this study, the lowest broken nut
Total Sum of
percentage was obtained at a low rotating speed. When the rotational
Squares
Broken nut percentage speed was high, the separation time of the broken nut increased. The
Model 108.94 6 18.16 13.96 < 0.0001 * 0.8656 percentage of fractured nuts rose as separation time and speed
X1-Speed 67.40 1 67.40 51.81 < 0.0001 * increased. As a result, the centrifugal idea can separate the mesocarp
X2-Time 11.42 1 11.42 8.78 0.0110 * from its nut while maintaining process integrity. This discovery is useful
X3-Capacity 14.90 1 14.90 11.45 0.0049 *
X1X2 4.35 1 4.35 3.35 0.0904
to the industry because a short operation time saves money and time.
X1X3 9.33 1 9.33 7.17 0.0190 * Using the fitted model, the optimal rotational speed and time were
X2X3 1.54 1 1.54 1.18 0.2961 determined and used to predict the optimal separation efficiency and
Residual 16.91 13 1.30 fractured nut percentage. The separation parameters for the mesocarp
Lack of fit 6.05 8 0.7567 0.3484 0.9105
and nut separation of palm fruitlets mesocarp were optimized for sep­
Pure error 10.86 5 2.17
Corrected 125.85 19 aration efficacy and optimized for broken nut percentage.
Total Sum of For the estimation of response, the desirability function from nu­
Squares merical optimization was used because this technique is more accept­
* means significant at (p < 0.05) able and legible than other optimization techniques. Using RSM, the
DF: Degree of freedom optimal separation conditions for this process were 1100 rpm

8
M.H. Wondi et al. Industrial Crops & Products 208 (2024) 117755

Fig. 7. The correlation between the actual values versus predicted values for separation efficiency and broken nut.

Fig. 8. Response surface plots for combined effects of separation time, rotational speed and capacity on the mesocarp separation efficiency percentage.

9
M.H. Wondi et al. Industrial Crops & Products 208 (2024) 117755

Fig. 9. Response surface plots for combined effects of separation time, rotational speed and capacity on the percentage of broken nut.

(rotational speed), 30 s (separation time), and 2.50 kg (loading capac­ RSM model considers not only the desired outcome, separation effi­
ity) based on the overall optimization result and a desirability of 1.00. ciency, but also factors in the crucial aspect of minimizing nut breakage.
This model’s optimized conditions were verified three times for vali­ Nut breakage can have significant economic and operational implica­
dation of output results, and the mean percentage error was calculated. tions, and the RSM model’s conditions are strategically selected to strike
After validation at a rotational speed of 1100 rpm, a time of 30 s, and a a balance between optimizing oil extraction and reducing nut damage.
capacity of 2.50 kg, Table 7 displays the percentage of errors in sepa­ This decision is rooted in a holistic approach to process improvement,
ration efficiency and percentage of fractured nuts, which were 1.46% recognizing that achieving an optimal balance between multiple factors,
and 9.02%, respectively. A percentage of error below 15% indicates including quality and efficiency, can yield more favorable overall results
results that are reliable and adequate. As the most optimal condition, the in the context of palm oil processing.
one with the lowest error rate was chosen.
This study produced two different optimum conditions from exper­
3.5. Oil extraction rate and nut extraction rate estimation
imental results and RSM model. Comparing these two, the optimum
condition that should be implemented is from RSM model, driven by a
To align our findings with industry standards and enabling mean­
primary consideration: the minimization of nut breakage. While the
ingful comparisons within the palm oil industry, we attempted to esti­
experimental results yielded a different set of conditions, the RSM model
mate the OER, a crucial parameter widely employed in the industry to
offers a more comprehensive perspective on process optimization. The
assess the effectiveness of palm oil production. In this study, we

Table 7
Experimental validation of rotational speed and time for separation efficiency and broken nut percentage.
No Response Rotational speed (rpm) Separation time (s) Loading capacity (kg) Values (%) Percentage of error (%)

Predicted Actual

1 Separation efficiency 1100 30 2.50 93.51 94.89 1.46

2 Broken nut 3.94 4.29 9.02

10
M.H. Wondi et al. Industrial Crops & Products 208 (2024) 117755

obtained the oil extraction per mesocarp processed (result not Table 8
mentioned). Further information can be found in this literature (Wondi, Oil extraction rate and nut extraction rate comparison.
2020). To estimate the OER, the oil extraction value was multiplied by Oil extraction per Oil extraction Kernel Reference
the mesocarp-to-fruit ratio (0.7) and fruit-to-fresh fruit bunch ratio mesocarp (%) rate (%) extraction rate
(0.66.). By multiplying to these ratios, a more accurate and relevant (%)
measure of OER was derived. The results are depicted in Table 8. The 69.37 32.00 6.23 This study
comparison shows that the OER obtained in this study was 32.00%, NA 19.74 4.87 (Malaysian Palm Oil
which was higher than the average OER in the industry at 19.74%. This Board, 2023b,
2023a)
indicates that the kernel-free digestion process has high potential to
improve the industry OER if implemented on a large scale. Apart from
OER, the kernel extraction rate was also estimated. To estimate the KER,
we use nut extraction rate data from our previous work (Wondi et al., Table 9
2021) at 22.87%. The value was multiplied by 0.59, which is the stan­ Economic analysis of kernel-free digestion process versus conventional process.
dard kernel-to-nut ratio, and the mesocarp-to-fruit ratio (0.7) and Cost and revenue Conventional Mill New technology
fruit-to-fresh fruit bunch ratio (0.66). A value of 6.23% was obtained, (USD) (USD)

surpassing the industry average at 4.87. This emphasizes the superior Capital cost - machine
efficiency of our proposed process. Kernel-free digester machine N/A - 21,000
Conventional digester - 42,000 N/A
Winnower - 39,000 N/A
3.6. Economic analysis of kernel-free digestion process versus Revenue based on OER (5 10,000,000 16,000,000
conventional process years)
Total 9919,000 15,979,000
In our economic analysis, we’ve evaluated the cost-effectiveness of
implementing a kernel-free digestion process compared to the conven­
Declaration of Competing Interest
tional approach in palm oil processing (Table 9). The conventional
method requires significant capital investment in both a conventional
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
digester (42000 USD) and a winnower (39000 USD). In contrast, our
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
innovative approach involves a lower initial capital outlay of 21000 USD
the work reported in this paper.
for our specialized machine, eliminating the need for a digester and
winnower. Importantly, all other aspects of the palm oil processing
Data Availability
remain unchanged. Over a five-year period, with a mill capacity of 15
tons per hour of fresh fruit bunches, our kernel-free digestion process
Data will be made available on request.
generates substantial revenue, estimated at 16,000,000 USD, primarily
driven by a higher OER of 32%. In comparison, the conventional mill
Acknowledgments
generates 10,000,000 USD in revenue. This analysis highlights the sig­
nificant cost savings and revenue potential associated with our novel
This work was supported by the Ministry of Energy, Science, Tech­
approach, making a strong case for its economic viability and potential
nology, Environmental & Climate Change Malaysia (MESTECC) through
benefits to the palm oil industry.
Smart Challenge Fund (SMART FUND) (Reference No: UPM/800-3/10/
5450824) as well as to Sime Darby Plantation Sdn. Bhd. for providing
4. Conclusion
the technical advisory.
The efficiency of the developed palm fruit kernel-free digester ma­
References
chine was evaluated at various operating parameters including rota­
tional speed, separation time and loading capacity. Based on the Abbas, S.A., Ali, S., Halim, S.I.M., Yunus, R., Choong, T.S.Y., 2006. Effect of thermal
findings, the process performance was significantly affected by these softening on the textural properties of palm oil fruitlets. J. Food Eng. 76, 626–631.
parameters. In brief, the separation efficiency improved with the in­ [Link]
Choo, Y., Yap, S., Ooi, C., Ma, A., 1996. Recovered oil from palm-pressed fiber: a good
crease in rotational speed and separation time (from 700 rpm to source of natural carotenoids, vitamin E, and sterols, 599–563 J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc.
1500 rpm and from 20 s to 40 s). However, the separation efficiency 73. [Link]
decreased as the loading capacity was increased from 2.50 kg to 5.00 kg. Han, N.M., Choo, M.Y., 2015. Enhancing the separation and purification efficiency of
palm oil carotenes using supercritical fluid chromatography. J. Oil Palm. Res 27,
In comparison to separation efficiency, kernel/ nut breakage increased 387–392.
with increasing rotational speed and separation time. The optimized Haris, N.I.N., Sobri, S., Kassim, N., 2019. Oil palm empty fruit bunch extract as green
condition for the separation process was 1100 rpm rotational speed, 30- corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in hydrochloric acid solution: central composite
design optimization. Mater. Corros. 70, 1111–1119. [Link]
s separation time and 2.50 kg loading capacity. The process achieved maco.201810653.
94.89% of separation efficiency and had 4.29% broken nut. The per­ Ilyas, R.A., Sapuan, S.M., Ibrahim, M.S., Wondi, M.H., Norrrahim, M.N.F., Harussani, M.
formance of the fabricated machine achieved the expected separation M., Aisyah, H.A., Jenol, M.A., Hayawin, Z.N., Atikah, M.S.N., Ibrahim, R.,
SaifulAzry, S.O.A., Hassan, C.S., Haris, N.I.N., 2021. Introduction to oil palm
efficiency which was above 90% with less than 10% of broken nut. The
biomass. In: Sapuan, S.M., Paridah, M.T., Saifulazry, S., Lee, S.H. (Eds.), Oil Palm
findings from this study provide useful information for scaling up the Biomass for Composite: Panels Fundamentals, Processing, and Applications. Elsevier,
diverter machine for high-capacity oil production scale. Amsterdam, Netherlands, pp. 3–38. [Link]
Kushairi, A., Loh, S.K., Azman, I., Hishamuddin, E., Ong-Abdullah, M., Izuddin, Z.B.M.N.,
Razmah, G., Sundram, S., Parveez, G.K.A., 2018. Oil palm economic performance in
CRediT authorship contribution statement Malaysia and r&d progress in 2017. J. Oil Palm. Res 30, 163–195. [Link]
10.21894/jopr.2018.0030.
Mohd Hafizz Wondi: Writing – original draft, Data curation, Formal Lau, H.L.N., Choo, Y.M., Ma, A.N., Chuah, C.H., 2006. Characterization and supercritical
carbon dioxide extraction of palm oil (Elaeis guineensis). J. Food Lipids 13,
analysis. Nur Izzah Nabilah Haris: Writing – review & editing. Rosnah 210–221. [Link]
Shamsudin: Supervision, Project administration. Robiah Yunus: Su­ Malaysian Palm Oil Board, 2023b. Recovery rate of palm kernel for the month of August
pervision, Funding acquisition. Maimunah Mohd Ali: Writing – review 2023 [WWW Document]. URL 〈[Link]
-rate/306-oil-extraction-rate-2023/1150-palm-kernel-recovery-rate-2023〉 (accessed
& editing, Formal analysis. Aditya Hutama Iswardi: Conceptualiza­ 9.20.23).
tion, Methodology.

11
M.H. Wondi et al. Industrial Crops & Products 208 (2024) 117755

Malaysian Palm Oil Board, 2023a. Oil extraction rate of crude palm oil for the month of Rosnani, W.A.N., Isa, A.W.G., Aila, N., Hassim, M., Ismail, N.U.R.H., Omar, Z., Sahri, M.
August 2023 [WWW Document]. URL 〈[Link] M.A.T., 2017. Palm oil and palm kernel oil: versatile ingredients for food
xtraction-rate/306-oil-extraction-rate-2023/1151-oil-extraction-rate-of-crude-pa applications. J. Palm. Oil Res. 29, 487–511. [Link]
lm-oil-2023〉 (accessed 9.20.23). jopr.2017.00014.
MPOB, 2015. Manual penggredan buah kelapa sawit MPOB, 3rd ed. Malaysian Palm Oil Sivasothy, K., Ma, A.N., Maycock, J.H., Koichiro, Y., 1993. Combined Sterilizer and
Board (MPOB), Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities Malaysia. Stripping Process. Palm Oil Dev.
Nagendran, B., Unnithan, U.R., Choo, Y.M., Sundram, K., 2000. Characteristics of red Stork Amsterdam, 1960. Stork Review. [Link]
palm oil, a carotene- and vitamin E-rich refined oil for food uses. Food Nutr. Bull. 21, Tan, Choon-hui, Ghazali, H.M., Kuntom, A., Tan, Chin-ping, Ariffin, A.A., 2009.
189–194. [Link] Extraction and physicochemical properties of low free fatty acid crude palm oil. Food
Nduka, N.B., Okay, O.A., Jonah, A.C., 2012. Design, fabrication and evaluation of palm Chem. 113, 645–650. [Link]
nut-pulp separator. J. Emerg. Trends Eng. Appl. Sci. 3, 144–151 [Link] Vincent, C.J., Shamsudin, R., Baharuddin, A.S., 2014. Pre-treatment of oil palm fruits: a
ISSN: 2141-7016. review. J. Food Eng. 143, 123–131. [Link]
Nur Sulihatimarsyila, A.W., Lau, H.L.N., Nabilah, K.M., Nur Azreena, I., 2019. Refining jfoodeng.2014.06.022.
process for production of refined palm-pressed fibre oil. Ind. Crops Prod. 129, Vincent, C.J., Shamsudin, R., Baharuddin, A.S., Yunus, R., 2016. Separation Performance
488–494. [Link] of Oil Palm Mesocarp and Kernel using Different Blade Orientation. Int. Symp. Agric.
Osei-Amponsah, C., Visser, L., Adjei-Nsiah, S., Struik, P.C., Sakyi-Dawson, O., Stomph, T. Biosyst. Eng. 9–11.
J., 2012. Processing practices of small-scale palm oil producers in the Kwaebibirem Wondi, M.H., 2020. Development of semi-continuous mesocarp and nut separator in
District, Ghana: a diagnostic study. NJAS-Wagening. J. Life Sci. 60–63, 49–56. enhancing the recovery of crude palm oil (Master Thesis). Universiti Putra Malaysia,
[Link] Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
Owolarafe, O.K., Faborode, M.O., Ajibola, O.O., 2002. Comparative evaluation of the Wondi, M.H., Shamsudin, R., Yunus, R., Alsultan, G.A., Iswardi, A.H., 2020. Centrifugal
digester – screw press and a hand-operated hydraulic press for palm fruit processing. separation-assisted and extraction of crude palm oil from separated mesocarp fiber:
J. Food Eng. 52, 249–255. central composite design optimization. J. Food Process Eng. 43, 1–13. [Link]
Owolarafe, O.K., Osunleke, A.S., Odejobi, O.A., Ajadi, S.O., Faborode, M.O., 2008. org/10.1111/jfpe.13426.
Mathematical modelling and simulation of the hydraulic expression of oil from oil Wondi, M.H., Shamsudin, R., Yunus, R., Baharudin, M.S., Arnan, M.Z., Rahman, A.F.A.,
palm fruit. Biosyst. Eng. 101, 331–340. [Link] 2021. Physical and mechanical properties of sterilized oil palm fruits at different
biosystemseng.2008.08.007. component. AMA, Agric. Mech. Asia, Afr. Lat. Am. 52, 3985–3997.
Peng, W.L., Mohd-Nasir, H., Setapar, S.H.M., Ahmad, A., Lokhat, D., 2019. Optimization Wondi, M.H., Shamsudin, R., Yunus, R., Mohd Ali, M., Haris, N.I.N., 2023. Design of a
of process variables using response surface methodology for tocopherol extraction separator machine for oil palm fruit mesocarp and nut using computer-aided design
from Roselle seed oil by supercritical carbon dioxide. Ind. Crops Prod. 143, 111886 and linear finite element analysis. J. Food Process Eng., e14457 [Link]
[Link] 10.1111/jfpe.14457.

12