Chapter 1.

THE LITHOSPHERE

The Earth is made up of a central core with a diameter of around 7000 kilometres, a
mantle 2900 kilometres in diameter, and a crust with a thickness varies from 5
kilommetres (under the oceans) to 72 kilometres (beneath the higher mountains). The
crust and the upper mental makes the Earth’s Lithosphere. Lithosphere, consist of two
words, litho means rock or hard and sphere means ball and it is made up mostly of
minerals and rocks.

1.1 The Minerals

A mineral is a substance made up of a single solid element or compound which has been
formed naturally within the Earth by the forces of inorganic (i.e. non-living) nature.
“There are thousand listed minerals, but only about sixty of these have the necessary
qualities of beauty, rarity and durability to make them suitable for use as gem materials.
Within this select group of some sixty gem materials there are several metallic minerals.
These include gold, silver and platinum.” (Read 2005)

In general, the characteristic of minerals can be summarized in four points:

 1- Definite chemical formula.
2- Definite atomic structure (crystalline structure), there are six crystal systems:
cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic, triclinic and hexagonal.
3- Physical characteristic
4- Optical characteristic

The chemical composition of diamond, for example, is mainly carbon C arranged in a

cubical atomic structure. Diamond has many optical and physical characteristic some of
them will be mentioned later in this chapter.

The following list some of the main physical and optical characteristic of the minerals:

1. Cleavage: is the tendency of a mineral to cleave or (break).

It is a directional feature occurs as a well-defined plane of
weak atomic bonding, which allows the stone to be split in
two leaving reasonably flat surfaces. The quality of
cleavage (how flat and clean is the cleavage plane) can vary
from perfect, good, distinct and poor, also the tendency for
the mineral to cleave/break easily can be described as easy,
moderate or difficult. Diamond for example has perfect
cleavage, but only cleaves with difficulty.

2. Fracture: Unlike cleavage, fracture occurs in random

directions, often as the result of a sharp impact. Fracture
mainly occurs in those minerals, which do not have
significant planes of cleavage, such as quartz. However, it
can also happen occasionally with other crystals, which
shows a cleavage, such as diamond. The fracture surface
may be uneven, conchoidal (curved), hackly (jagged), or
splintery (small, thin, and sharp or fibrous).
3. Hardness: is a non-linear scale from 1 to 10 that indicate the resistance of
mineral to being scratched. It was invented by the German mineralogist Friedrich
Mohs in 1822. The scale includes a group of minerals represent a hardness level
in scale, as shown in the table below:

1. Talc 6. Orthoclase feldspar

Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 KAlSi3O8
Monoclinic Monoclinic

7. Quartz
2. Gypsum
SiO2
CaSO4·2H2O
Monoclinic Hexagonal

3. Calcite
8. Topaz
CaCO3 Al2SiO4(OH,F)2
Orthorhombic
Hexagonal

4. Fluorspar 9. Corundum
CaF2 Al2O3
Cubic Hexagonal

5. Apatite 10. Diamond

Ca5(PO4)3(OH,Cl,F) C
Hexagonal Cubic

So basically, identifying mineral hardness will depend on comparing between any

substance on the scale having a given hardness number with scratching another
one having a lower number, and will in turn be scratched by one having a higher
number. For example, Calcite can scratch Gypsum and be scratched by Fluorspar.
 Some minerals possess directional hardness, hence, diamond will be cut and
polished by either diamond powder or Laser.

Hardness of common objects : Fingernail - 2½, Copper coil 3½, paper clip 4½,
pocket knife blade 5½, glass – 6, sandpaper 7, steel file - 7½.

4. Streak : it is the colour of the mineral’s powder left when it is rubbed against a
rough surface that is harder than the mineral, this process could the streak test.
Almost every mineral has an inherent streak color independent of the actual
colour.

5. Luster: is an optical effect describes the appearance or quality of light reflected

from the surface of a mineral. Eight terms were used to describe the mineral
luster, these are: Metallic (metal like luster), Adamantine (diamond like luster),
Vitreous (glass like luster), Resinous (amber like luster), Waxy (matt surface),
Greasy (soapstone like luster), Pearly (pearl like luster) and Silky (satin spar
luster).

1.2 Specific Gravity

Specific gravity SG is the ratio of the mineral weight to the weight of an identical volume
of pure water, in other words, how many times heavier the mineral is than water.
Because SG is expressed as a ratio, no units of measurement are necessary. Most minerals
have SG from 2 to 5.

There are number of methods (physical and chemical) to identify the specific gravity of
the minerals, the one that is widely used, especially in Gemstones Laboratories is a
method based upon the principle discovered by Archimedes. If the mineral is first
weighed in air and then weighed again while immersed in water, the specific gravity of
the mineral can be calculated:
    

 
1-1
       

The weight of the mineral in air

W2
W1 W1 will be greater than its weight
in water W2. According to
Archimedes principle, the
immersed body in liquid is
buoyed up by a force equals to
the weight of the liquid displaced.

In addition, if the densities of both the mineral and water are given, the specific gravity
can then be calculated:



 

1-2

Where,  is the density:

 ⁄ 

1-3

m is the mass and V is the volume. The density of water will vary greatly depending on
its salinity and temperature, for the fresh water, for example, the density is 1000 kg/m3
(or 1 g/cm3). Most of the minerals found near the surface of the earth have densities in the
range of 1.5 g/cm3 to 3 g/cm3.
Example 1

A block of mineral with edge lengths 85.5 cm, 79.0 cm, 43.8 cm has a mass of 953 kg.
Find its Specific Gravity?

Solution

  ⁄

For fresh water

  1000 ⁄ 

To calculate the mineral density

 ⁄
  953 ⁄#0.79 & 0.438 & 0.855 )
  3221 ⁄ 

Then the specific gravity is,

  ⁄  3221⁄1000  3.2

1.1 Unit Weight (γγ)

A further important parameter used widely in engineering is the Unit Weight, it is defined
as the weight of a substance per unit volume.
 ,
+ -⁄  1-4


W is the weight in Newton and V is the volume in cubic metre. The unit weight is also
known as Weight Density and Specific Weight

. .
+  / 0   
 

1 +   1-5

Where   9.8 ⁄2 3

From the definition of specific gravity, a relation can be found between the later and the
Unit Weight, since

 +
  4+
 

This means that the Unit Weight of the water is

+  #1000  5 )#
9.8 2 53 )  9800 -⁄ 
or +  9.8 -⁄ 
Example 2

Calculate the density in g/cm3 of a rock if it has a Unit Weight 27.6 kN/m3?

Solution

+  27.6 -⁄ 

+ 27.6 & 10 -⁄ 

+   7   
 9.8 ⁄2 3
- 23 
  2816 & /89 -  0
 23
 23
1   2816 : 23
& ;  2816 ⁄ 

Giving that   1000 

  2.816 ⁄< 

1.3 The Rock Cycle

The Earth Crust is mainly made of rocks, which is an aggregation of different mixture of
minerals. For example, Granite is a type of rock composed of a mixture of feldspar,
quartz and mica.

There are three groups of rocks, igneous rocks, sedimentary and metamorphic. The Rock
Cycle illustrates the interrelationships between groups. This interrelation is governed by
the various geologic processes, which act to transform one rock type into another.
 Magma is motion
Magma of material found
inside Earth
Melting
Cooling &
solidification
(crystallization)
It means the
The metamorphic change form
agents: Metamorphic
1. Pressure Rock
2. Heat Heat & pressure
Igneous
3. Chemically
Rock
active fluids

Weathering,
transportation
& deposition
Heat & pressure
(Metamorphism)
Weathering, Weathering
transportation transportation
and deposition & deposition
Sedimentary
Rock
Sediment

Cementation &
compaction

1.2 Porosity:

Rocks are assembled from many small, solid particles, called grains or matrix. They are
irregular in shape. This irregularity leaves an open space between the grains, the spaces
are called pores.
Pores also, may simply be cracks in the rock, the result of mechanical or thermal forces
exerted on the rock sometime in the past. They could be bubbles frozen into the rock
when it solidified.

The ratio of the volume of pores in the rock to the total volume is defined as the
t Porosity
(n). It can be calculated as follows:

= 9   > 2 ?@A

 
1-6
= 9    < 

V is the volume of the rock as found in nature (in the field) and includes both the pores
and the matrix.

  ?@A B CDE 1-7

CDE is the total volume of all the truly solid portions of the rock.

The pore’ss volume must be less than the volume of the rock (i.e., Vpores
pore <V), and hence n

is always <1.

0 F G1
  0, is a situation that the rock contains very fine grains and they are interlocked (like a
jigsaw puzzle).

The density of the grain ρg is

.HDI
H 
1-8
HDI

Mgrains is the total mass of the grains in the rock sample containing a volume Vgrains of
grains. If the pores are unoccupied, or filled with gas only, then .HDIA  . which is
mass of the sample.

But ;

HDIA    ?@A

HDIA    

HDIA  #1  ) 1-9

Substituting (1-9) in (1-8)

.HDIA . 1 .
H    ·
HDIA #1  ) #1  ) 


H 
#1  )
1-10

Where ρ is the total density of the rock and M is the total mass.

Equation (1-8) is valid only when the pores are filled with gas, air or methane, and it can
be rewritten as in term of Unit Weight.
Multiplying Equation (1-8) by g, we get;


H  
1

Hence +  , then

+
+H 
1
1-11

Example 3

A 0.885 m3 block of sandstone has a mass of 1752 kg. When the block is crushed just
sufficiently to close all the pores, which are empty, the volume of the rock becomes 0.584
m3.
Find : a) the porosity of the sand
b) the density of the grains
(Assume that the density of the grains didn’t change in the crushing process)

Solution

  0.885 

The volume of the crushed rock must be equal to the volume of all the grains in
the original block since the crushed rock has zero pores volume.

(a)

1 HDIA  0.584 

.HDIA  .  1752 
  ?@A B HDIA
0.885  ?@A B 0.584
 ?@A  0.301 

  ?@A ⁄
  0.301⁄0.885  0.34
  34%

(b)

H  .HDIA ⁄HDIA
H  1752⁄0.584
H  3000 ⁄ 
 3  ⁄< 

1.3 Dry and Saturated Unit Weights

The pores of some undisturbed rocks by human activity (as found in the earth) may be
filled with either gas or liquid. If all the pore in the rock are completely filled with liquid,
then the rock is said to be saturated. If all the pores are empty, then the rock is said to be
dry. So is it correct to say that

+A  +LM B +N

In fact, the above equation is incorrect because of the different volumes involved.
Therefore, instead, the weight of the rocks and the liquid will be used.

,A  ,LM B ,N 1-12

However, the volume of the rock V will be the same for both the saturated and dry
situation, hence dividing equation 1-12 by V,
,A ,LM ,N
 B
  
,N
+A  +LM B


But

,N
+N 
N

VL is volume of the liquid and equals the volume of the pores; VL = Vpores

N
1 N   7  

,N
1 +A  +LM B 
N

1 +A  +LM B +N 1-13

Alternatively, rewriting equation 1-13 in terms of density, we get

A   LM  B N 

A   OLM B N P

A  LM B N 1-14

Example 4

A test cylinder of rock has a diameter of 12.6 cm and a length

of 14 cm. When dry its weight is 50 N. When saturated with
mercury the weight of the sample is 62.8 N. The specific
gravity of mercury is 13.6.
Find the porosity of the rock?

Solution

First calculate the volume of the rock, given

d = 12.6 cm and L = 14 cm
1 @QR  S 3 T  1.744 & 105 

,LM  50 -
,A  62.8 -

From equation 1-13

+A  +LM B +N

Where

,
+

,A ,LM
1  B +N
 
B #+N )
U3.V W ^[ W
[Link] &X[\] C]
 [Link] &X[\] C ]
(c)

but

N N 
  / 0_/ 0  / 0_/ 0
N 
 N  N 
,N ,
1  _
N 
 +N
1
+
1 +N  +  13.6 & +

but

+     #1000 ⁄  )#
9.8 ⁄2 3 )  9.8 & 10 -⁄
1 +N  13.6 & 9.8 & 10  1.333 & 10^ -/ 

Substitute the value of +N in equation (c), we get

  0.0537 7   5.37%

1.4 Subsidence

Subsidence is the downward movement of the ground, causing sometimes very noticeable
and hazardous lowering of ground surface. It can occur for different reasons such as
withdrawing of large amount of groundwater from certain types of rocks, such as fine-
grained sediments or withdrawing of oil or natural gas. In addition to the human
activities, subsidence can be caused due to natural causes, such as, the movement of the
crust layers against each other during Earthquakes. Subsidence can take place slowly or
quickly.

Suppose that loose, unconsolidated, rock (or soil) is dumped into a rectangular trench
(length L, width W and depth Ho). Initially, the material, of porosity no just fills the
trench. Because of external load, the material is consolidated or compacted. That is, its
pores partially collapse, squeezing out any water that might have occupied them.
Eventually, the consolidation ceases, with the porosity reduced to n<no (n is final
porosity). Assume that ρ of the matrix is unaffected. Now, the material occupies a
region of smaller volume, so that it fills the trench only to a height H<Ho. (∆H=H-Ho).
A lowering of ground surface is called subsidence. It can occur for reasons other than a
change of porosity and can take place slowly or quickly.
 ∆H

Rectangular
trench

By definition

CDE  #1  @ )#a@ ,T) 8 

CDE  #1  )#a,T)  

Hence, the volume of the matrix will not change,

CDE bc d  CDE b d

#1   )#a,T)  #1  @ )#a@ ,T)

#1   )#a )  #1  @ )#a@ )

But we know that a  #a@  ∆a )

#1   )#a@  ∆a )  #1  @ )#a@ )

@  
∆a  a@ f g
1
1-15

Equation (1-15) applies only to a one-dimenstional subsidence.

Example 5

A layer of clay with a porosity of 47% and saturated with water is deposited into a
rectangular trench 260 m long and 17.5 m wide to a depth 2.72 m. Later, it is found that
clay has settled by 15.0 cm. Find the volume of water squeezed out of the clay.

Solution
hi@  0.47
hi@  260 & 17.5 & 2.72  12376 

i  260 & 17.5 & 2.57  11693.5 

∆  @    682.5 

0.470  
0.15  2.72 j k
1
i  0.4391

Since the clay was saturated, the volume Vw of water squeezed out equals loss of
pore space in the clay due to the compaction. Therefore,

?@A
  O?@A Phi@  O?@A Pi l  

  # )hi@  # )i
  0.47#12376)  0.4391#11693.5)
  5816.7  5134.6
  682 
Example 6

Mine spoils of porosity no are dumped into a triangular trench to depth H0, as shown in
Fig Over time, the spoils become compacted under their own weight until the porosity is
reduced to n. Show that the subsidence ∆H of the surface of the spoils is given by the
expression,
 1 − n0 
∆H = H 0 1 − 
 1− n 

Solution

@  
#1  @ )#a@ ,@ T@ )  #1  )#a,T)
,@ a@
2< T  T@ l 
, a
#1  @ )#a@3 )  #1   )#a 3 )
2< a@  ∆a B a m a  a@  ∆a

#a@  ∆a)
3
#1  @ )  #1  ) : ;
a[
∆a 3
#1  @ )  #1  ) /1  0
a[

#1  @ ) ∆a
n 1
#1   ) a@
 #X5I )
∆a  a@ :1  o #X5I)p ; 1-16

Example 7

Material with porosity no is stored in a rectangular trench, filling the trench to depth Ho.
Show that the porosity n of the material after settling a distance equal to 1/2 Ho is given
by   2[  1

Solution
@  
∆a  a@ f g
1
1
 ∆a  a@
2
1 @  
a@  a@ 4q r
2 1
2@  2  1  ; 2@  1   B 2; 2@  1 B 
1   2@  1

1.5 Multi-mineral Rock

For a rock, that contains several minerals, the value of the density of the grains ρ g in

equation 1-10 is the average of the densities of the individual minerals present. If a rock
has three minerals of ρ1 , ρ 2 and ρ3, then the bulk grain density ρ g will not be #X B
X


3 B  ) because the minerals may be present on different amounts. A weighted average

must be used.
If Mg is the total mass and Vg is the total volume of all grains, then:

.H  H H

.H  .X B .3 B .

1 H H  X X B 3 3 B  

X 3 
H  X : ; B 3 : ; B  : ;
H H H

X
T 
X
H

H  X X B 3 3 B   1-17

We must have f 1 + f 2 + f 3 = 1 a grain of the mineral olivine can contain some or all of the

molecules Fe 2 SiO 4 , Fe M g Si O 4 , and Mg 2 Si O 4 .

Example 8

A shale consist of 34.1% chlorite and 65.9% pyrite, and has a porosity of 38.8%. Find
the bulk density of the shale?

Solution

H  Qt Qt B ?M ?M

H  #0.341 & 2.8) B #0.659)#5.05)

We have H  4.283 ⁄< 

But H #1  )  
  2.62 ⁄< 
 Example 9

A sample of rock has a volume of 27.6 cm3. Its composition is 36.2% orthoclase ( ρ
=2.55 g/cm3) and 17.4% pyrite ( ρ =5.05 g/cm3), the rest is galena ( ρ =7.54 g/cm3). The
porosity of the rock is 21.0%. Find the mass of the rock sample if it is saturated with oil
of specific gravity 0.6?

Solution

  27.6 < 

.H #lu)  .X B .3 B .
H  X X B 3 3 B  
H  #2.55 & 0.362) B #5.05 & 0.174) B #7.54 & 0.464)
H  5.30 ⁄< 

.LM
H 
#1  ) 
.LM  H  #1   )  5.30 & 27.6#1  0.21)
.LM  115.6 
+N
89  
+
l ,N  +N N ;
 ,N  + N
,N  9800 & 0.6 N
N   #  27.6 < 
 27.6 & 105U )

,N  9800 & 0.6 & 0.21 & 27.6 & 105U

,N  0.03 -  0.003   3 
.A  .LM B .N
.A  115.6 B 3  119 
Example 10

Calculate the porosity of a rock that is 50% quartz (ρq = 2.65 g/cm3 )50 % muscovite(ρm
= 2.85 g/cm3 ) and that has a bulk density of 2 g/cm3.

Solution

  2 ⁄< 

X  0.5 3  0.5
H  2.65 ⁄< 
CvAQ@wD  2.85 ⁄< 

H  X H B 3 C

H  #0.5 & 2.65) B #0.5 & 2.85)

H  2.75 ⁄< 

 2.00
89 H  ; 2.75 
1 1
1    0.7272
  0.272  27.2%

Calculate the porosity of a rock when saturated with water.

+A  +LM B +N

+LM  H 
H  2.75 ⁄< 

2 & 9.8  #2.75 & 9.8) B # & 9.8)

  0.75  75%

1 .LM  H #1   )  5.30 & 27.6#1  0.21)

.LM  115.6 
89 ,N  +N N
,N  +  N
,N  9800 & 0.6 N
 N   #  27.6 < 
 27.6 & 105U )

,N  9800 & 0.6 & 0.21 & 27.6 & 105U

,N  0.03 -  0.003   3 
.A  .LM B .N
.A  115.6  B 3   119 

(Webster)

Reference
Read, P. G. (2005). Gemmology. Amsterdam; Boston, Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann.

Webster, R. Practical Gemmology. London, N.A.G Press.