Chapter 5

UNIPLANAR MOTION WHEN THE

ACCELERATION IS CENTRAL
AND VARYING AS THE INVERSE
SQUARE OF THE DISTANCE

End of Art 74
EXAMPLES
CHAPTER 5: UNIPLANAR MOTION WHEN THE ACCELERATION … 39
SOLUTION MANUAL: DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE 40
CHAPTER 5: UNIPLANAR MOTION WHEN THE ACCELERATION … 41

End of Art 86
EXAMPLES
SOLUTION MANUAL: DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE 42
CHAPTER 5: UNIPLANAR MOTION WHEN THE ACCELERATION … 43
SOLUTION MANUAL: DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE 44
Chapter 5

UNIPLANAR MOTION WHEN THE

ACCELERATION IS CENTRAL AND
VARYING AS THE INVERSE
SQUARE OF THE DISTANCE

65. In the present chapter we shall consider the motion when the
central acceleration follows the Newtonian Law of Attraction.
This law may be expressed as follows; between every two parti-
cles, of masses m1 and m2 placed at a distance r apart, the mutual
attraction is
m1 m2
γ 2
r
units of force, where γ is a constant, depending on the units of mass
and length employed, and known as the constant of gravitation.
If the masses be measured in grammes, and the length in centime-
ters (C.G.S. System) the value of γ is 6.66 × 10−8 approximately,
and the attraction is expressed in dynes.
If the masses be measured in kilogrammes, and the length in me-
tres (M.K.S. System) the value of γ is 6.66 × 10−11 approximately,
and the attraction is expressed in newtowns.

66. A particle moves in a path so that its acceleration is always

µ
directed to a fixed point and is equal to (distance)2
; to show that its
path is a conic section and to distinguish between the three cases
that arise.

107
108 Chapter 5: Uniplanar Motion When the Acceleration is central and varying ...

µ
When P = , the equation (5) of Art. 53 becomes
r2
h2 d p µ
= ...(1).
p3 dr r2
Integrating we have, by Art. 54,

2 h2 2µ
v = 2= +C ...(2).
p r
Now the (p, r) equation of an ellipse and hyperbola, referred to a
focus, are respectively
b2 2a b2 2a
= − 1, and 2 = +1 ...(3),
p2 r p r
where 2a and 2b are the transverse and conjugate axes.
Hence, when C is negative, (2) is an ellipse; when C is positive, it
is a hyperbola.
p2
Also when C = 0, (2) becomes = constant, and this is the (p, r)
r
equation of a parabola referred to its focus.
Hence (2) always represents a conic section, whose focus is at the
centre of force, and which is an
 
ellipse 
 negative 
parabola according as C is zero ,

 

or hyperbola or positive
2µ
i.e. according as v2 S , i.e. according as the square of the
r
2µ
velocity at any point P is S , where S is the focus.
SP
Again, comparing equations (2) and (3), we have, in the case of
h2 µ C
the ellipse, 2 = = .
b a −1
LONEY’S DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE WITH SOLUTION MANUAL (Kindle edition) 109
r
b2 p µ
∴ h= µ = µ × semi-latus-rectum, and C = − .
a a
µ ¶
2 1
Hence, in the case of the ellipse, v2 = µ − ...(4).
µ ¶ r a
2 1
So, for the hyperbola, v2 = µ + , and, for the parabola,
r a
2µ
v2 = .
r
It will be noted that in each case the velocity at any point does not
depend on the direction of the velocity.
Since h is twice the area described in the unit of time (Art. 54),
therefore, if T be the time of describing the ellipse, we have

area of the ellipse π ab 2π 3/2

T= = r = √ a
1 1 b 2 µ ...(5),
h µ
2 2 a
so that the square of the periodic time varies as the cube of the major
axis.

C OR . 1. If a particle be projected at a distance R with velocity V in

any direction the path is an ellipse, parabola or hyperbola, according
2µ
as V 2 <=> .
R
Now the square of the velocity that would be acquired in falling
from infinity to the distance R, by Art. 31.
Z R³ · ¸R
µ´ 2µ 2µ
=2 − 2 dr = = .
∞ r r ∞ R
Hence the path is an ellipse, parabola or hyperbola according as the
velocity at any point is <=> that acquired in falling from infinity to
the point.
110 Chapter 5: Uniplanar Motion When the Acceleration is central and varying ...

C OR . 2. The velocity V1 for the description of a circle of radius R is

given by
V1 µ µ
= normal acceleration = 2 , so that V12 =
R R R
Velocity from infinity
∴ V1 = √ .
2
67. In the previous article the branch of the hyperbola described is
the one nearest the centre of force.
If the central acceleration be from the centre and if it vary as the
inverse square of the distance, the further branch is described. For in
this case the equation of motion is

h2 d p µ h2 2µ
= − . ∴ = − +C ...(1).
p3 dr r2 p2 r
Now the (p, r) equation of the further branch of a hyperbola is
b2 2a
= 1 − ,
p2 r
h2 µ
and this always agrees with (1) provided that 2 = = C,
b a µ ¶
√ h 2 1 2
so that h = µ × semi-latus-rectum, and v2 = 2 = µ − .
p a r
68. Construction of the orbit given the point of projection and the
direction and magnitude of the velocity of projection.
Let S be the centre of attraction, P the point of projection, T PT 0
the direction of projection, and V the velocity of projection.
LONEY’S DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE WITH SOLUTION MANUAL (Kindle edition) 111

2µ
Case I. Let V 2 < ; then, by Art.66, the path is an ellipse whose
SP µ ¶
2 1
major axis 2a is given by the equation V 2 = µ − , where R =
R a
2Rµ
SP, so that 2a = .
2µ −V 2 R
Draw PS0 , so that PS0 and PS are on the same side of T PT 0 , making
∠T 0 PS0 = ∠T PS, and take
0 V 2 R2
PS = 2a − SP = 2a − R = .
2µ −V 2 R
Then S0 is the second focus and the elliptic path is therefore known.
2µ
Case II. Let V 2 = , so that the path is a parabola. Draw the direc-
SP
tion PS0 as in Case I; in this case this is the direction of the axis of
the parabola. Draw SU parallel to PS0 to meet T PT 0 in U; draw SY
perpendicular to T PT 0 and YA perpendicular to SU. Then A is the
vertex of the required parabola whose focus is S, and the curve can
be constructed.
SY 2 2p20
The semi-latus-rectum = 2SA = 2 = , where p0 is the per-
SP R
pendicular from S on the direction of projection.
2µ
Case III. Let V 2 > , so that the path is a hyperbola of transverse
SP
axis 2a given by the equation
µ ¶
2 1 2µ R
V2 = µ + , and hence 2a = 2 .
R a V R − 2µ
In this case PS0 lies on the opposite side of T PT 0 from PS, such that
∠T PS = ∠T PS0 , and S0 P − SP = 2a, so that
0 V 2 R2
S P = R + 2a = 2 .
V R − 2µ
112 Chapter 5: Uniplanar Motion When the Acceleration is central and varying ...

The path can then be constructed, since S0 is the second focus.

69. Kepler’s Laws. The astronomer Kepler, after many years of pa-
tient labour, discovered three laws connecting the motions of the
various planets about the sun. They are:
1. Each planet describes an ellipse having the sun in one of its
foci.
2. The areas described by the radii drawn from the planet to the
sun are, in the same orbit, proportional to the times of describing
them.
3. The squares of the periodic times of the various planets are
proportional to the cubes of the major axes of their orbits.

70. From the second law we conclude, by Art. 54, that the accelera-
tion of each planet, and therefore the force on it, is directed towards
the Sun.
From the first law it follows, by Art. 55 or Art. 66, that the accel-
eration of each planet varies inversely as the square of its distance
from the Sun.
From the third law it follows, since from Art. 66 we have
2 4π 2 3
T = .a ,
µ
that the absolute acceleration µ (i.e. the acceleration at unit distance
from the Sun) is the same for all planets.
Laws similar to those of Kepler have been found to hold for the
planets and their satellites.
LONEY’S DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE WITH SOLUTION MANUAL (Kindle edition) 113

It follows from the foregoing considerations that we may assume

Newton’s Law of Gravitation to be true throughout the Solar System.

71. Kepler’s Laws were obtained by him, by a process of continually

trying hypotheses until he found one that was suitable; he started
with the observations made and recorded for many years by Tycho
Brahé, a Dane, who lived from A.D. 1546 to 1601.
The first and second laws were enunciated by Kepler in 1609 in his
book on the motion of the planet Mars. The third law was announced
ten years later in a book entitled On the Harmonies of the World.
The explanation of these laws was given by Newton in his Principia
published in the year 1687.

72. Kepler’s third law, in the form given in Art. 69, is only true on
the supposition that the Sun is fixed, or that the mass of the planet is
neglected in comparison with that of the Sun.
A more accurate form is obtained in the following manner.
Let S be the mass of the Sun, P that of any of its planets, and γ
the constant of gravitation. The force of attraction between the two
S.P
is thus γ . 2 , where r is the distance between the Sun and planet at
r
any instant. µ ¶
γS
The acceleration of the planet is then α = 2 towards the Sun,
µ ¶ r
γP
and that of the Sun is β = 2 towards the planet.
r

S b a P
114 Chapter 5: Uniplanar Motion When the Acceleration is central and varying ...

To obtain the acceleration of the planet relative to the Sun we must

give to both an acceleration β along the line PS. The acceleration of
the Sun is then zero and that of the planet is α + β along PS. If, in
addition, we give to each a velocity equal and opposite to that of the
Sun we have the motion of P relative to the Sun supposed to be at
rest.
The relative acceleration of the planet with respect to the Sun then

γ (S + P)
α +β = .
r2
Hence the µ of Art. 66 is γ (S + P), and, as in that article we then
have
2π
T=p a3/2 .
γ (S + P)
If T1 , be the time of revolution and a1 the semi-major axis of the
relative path of another planet P1 , we have similarly
2π 3/2 S + P T 2 a3
T1 = p a1 , ∴ . = .
γ (S + P1 ) S + P1 T12 a31
T2 a3
Since Kepler’s Law, that 2 varies as 3 , is very approximately
T1 a1
S + P1
true, it follows that is very nearly unity, and hence that P and
S+P
P1 are either very nearly equal or very small compared with S. But
it is known that the masses of the planets are very different; hence
they must be very small compared with that of the Sun.

73. The corrected formula of the last article may be used to give an
approximate value to the ratio of the mass of a planet to that of the
Sun in the case where the planet has a small satellite, whose periodic
time and mean distance from the planet are known.
LONEY’S DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE WITH SOLUTION MANUAL (Kindle edition) 115

In the case of the satellite the attraction of the planet is the force
which for all practical purposes determines its path.
If P be the mass of the planet and D its mean distance from the
Sun, then, as in the previous article,
2π
T=p D3/2 .
γ (S + P)
Similarly, if p be the mass of the satellite, d its mean distance from
the planet, and t its periodic time, then
2π
t=p d 3/2 .
γ (P + p)
S + P T 2 D3
∴ . = 3.
P + p t2 d
The quantities T,t, D and d being known, this gives a value for
S+P
.
P+ p
As a numerical example take the case of the Earth E and the Moon
m.
S+E t 2 D3
Then = . .
E + m T 2 d3
Now T = 365 14 days, t = 27 13 days, D = 149, 600, 000 km., and
d = 386, 000 km., all the values being approximate.
à !2 µ ¶
S+E 1
27 3 149, 600 3
∴ = × = 325, 900 approx.
E +m 365 14 386
Therefore S + E = 325, 900 times the sum of the masses of the Earth
and Moon. Also m = E/81 nearly.

∴ S = 330, 000E nearly.

This is a fairly close approximation to the accurate result.

116 Chapter 5: Uniplanar Motion When the Acceleration is central and varying ...

If the Sun be assumed to be a sphere of 708,000 km. radius and

mean density n times that of the Earth, assumed to be a sphere of
6400 km. radius, this gives

n × 708, 0003 = 330, 000 × 64003

330, 000 330 1
∴ n= approx. = = about .
1103 1331 4
1 1
Hence the mean density of the Sun = that of the Earth = ×
4 4
3
5.527 = 1.4g/cm approx. so that the mean density of the Sun is
nearly half as much again as that of water.

74. It is not necessary to know the mean distance and periodic time
of the planet P in order to determine its mass, or rather the sum of
its mass and that of its satellite.
For if E and m be the masses of the Earth and Moon, R the distance
of the Earth from the Sun, r that of the Moon from the Earth, if Y
denote a year and y the mean lunar month, then we have
2π
Y=p .R3/2 ...(1),
γ (S + E)
2π
y= p .r3/2 ...(2).
γ (E + m)
Also, as in the last article,
2π
t=p .d 3/2 ...(3).
γ (P + p)
From (1) and (3),
t2 Y2
(P + p) 3 = (S + E) 3 ...(4).
d R
From (2) and (3),
LONEY’S DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE WITH SOLUTION MANUAL (Kindle edition) 117

t2 y2
(P + p) 3 = (E + m) 3 ...(5).
d r
Equation (4) gives the ratio of P + p to S + E.
Equation (5) gives the ratio of P + p to E + m.

EXAMPLES

1. Show that the velocity of a particle moving in an ellipse about a

centre of force in the focus is compounded of two constant veloc-
µ µe
ities, perpendicular to the radius and perpendicular to the
h h
major axis.
2. A particle describes an ellipse about a centre of force at the focus;
show that, at any point of its path, the angular velocity about the
other focus varies inversely as the square of the·normal at the point.
¸
µ
3. A particle moves with a central acceleration = ; it
(distance)2
is projected with velocity V at a distance R. show that its path is a
rectangular hyperbola if the angle of projection is

µ
sin−1 µ ¶1/2 .
2µ
VR V2 −
R
· ¸
µ
4. A particle describes an ellipse under a force = to-
(distance)2
wards the focus; if it was projected with velocity V from a point
distant r from the centre of force, show that its periodic time is
· ¸−3/2
2π 2 V 2
√ −
µ r µ
 118 Chapter 5: Uniplanar Motion When the Acceleration is central and varying ...

5. If the velocity of the Earth at any point of its orbit, assumed to

be circular, were increased by about one-half, prove that it would
describe a parabola about the Sun as focus.
Show also that, if a body were projected from the Earth with a
velocity exceeding 11.2 km per second, it will not return to the
Earth and may even leave the Solar System.
6. A particle is projected from the Earth’s surface with velocity v;
show that, if the diminution of gravity be taken into account, but
the resistance of the air neglected, the path is an ellipse of major
2ga2
axis , where a is the Earth’s radius.
2ga − v2
7. Show that an unresisted particle falling to the Earth’s surface from
√
a great distance would acquire a velocity 2ga, where a is the
Earth’s radius.
Prove that the velocity acquired by a particle similarly falling into
the Sun is to the Earth’s velocity in the square root of the ratio of
the diameter of the Earth’s orbit to the radius of the Sun.
8. If a planet were suddenly stopped in its orbit, supposed√circular,
2
show that it would fall into the Sun in a time which is times
8
the period of the planet’s revolution.
1
9. The eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit round the Sun is ; show
60
that the Earth’s distance from the Sun exceeds the length of the
semi-major axis of the orbit during about 2 days more than half
the year.
10. The mean distance of Mars from the Sun being 1.524 times that of
the Earth, find the time of revolution of Mars about the Sun.
11. The time of revolution of Mars about the Sun is 687 days and
1
his mean distance 227 × 106 km.; the distance of the Satellite
2
 LONEY’S DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE WITH SOLUTION MANUAL (Kindle edition) 119

Deimos from Mars is 23,500 km and its time of revolution 30 hrs.

18 mins.; show that the mass of the Sun is a little more than three
million times that of Mars.
12. The time of revolution of Jupiter about the Sun is 18.6 years and
its mean distance 777 × 106 km; the distance of his first satellite is
1
420,000 km, and its time of revolution 1 day 18 hrs.; show that
2
the mass of Jupiter is a little less than one-thousandth of that of the
Sun.
2
13. The outer satellite of Jupiter revolves in 16 days approximately,
3
1
and its distance from the planet’s centre is 16 radii of the latter.
2
The last discovered satellite revolves in 12 hours nearly; find its
distance from the planet’s centre.
Find also the approximate ratio of Jupiter’s mean density to that
of the Earth, assuming that the Moon’s distance is 60 times the
1
Earth’s radius and that her siderial period is 27 days nearly.
3
[Use equations (2) and (3) of Art. 74, and neglect m in comparison
with E, and p in comparison with P.]
14. A planet is describing an ellipse about the Sun as focus; show that
its velocity away from the Sun is greatest when the radius vector
to the planet is at right angles to the major axis of the path, and that
2π ae
it then is √ where 2a is the major axis, e the eccentricity,
T 1 − e2
and T the periodic time.

75. To find the time of description of a given arc of an elliptic orbit

starting from the nearer end of the major axis.
dθ
The equation r2 = h of Art. 53 gives
dt
120 Chapter 5: Uniplanar Motion When the Acceleration is central and varying ...

Z θ Z θ
2 l2
ht = r dθ = dθ ...(1).
0 0 (1 + e cos θ )2
If e > 1, then by the well-known result in Integral Calculus
Z θ
"r #
dθ 2 1−e θ
=√ tan−1 tan ...(2).
0 1 + e cos θ 1−e 2 1 + e 2
Differentiating with respect to the constant e we have
Z θ
− cos θ
2
dθ
0 (1 + e cos θ )
"r #
2e −1 1−e θ 1 sin θ
= tan tan − ...(3).
(1 − e2 )3/2 1+e 2 1 − e2 1 + e cos θ
Z θ
1
∴ 2
dθ
0 (1 + e cos θ )
Z θ· ¸
1 e cos θ
= − dθ
0 1 + e cos θ (1 + e cos θ )2
"r #
2 −1 1−e θ e sin θ
= tan tan − ...(4)
(1 − e2 )3/2 1+e 2 1 − e2 1 + e cos θ
l2 l2 a3/2 (1 − e2 )3/2
Hence, since = p = √ , we have, by (1),
h µl µ
" Ãr ! #
a3/2 1−e θ p sin θ
t=√ 2 tan−1 tan − e 1 − e2 ...(5)
µ 1+e 2 1 + e cos θ
A LITER . If we change the variable θ into a new variable φ given by
the relation
(1 + e cos θ )(1 − e cos φ ) = 1 − e2 , so that
cos φ − e 2 (1 − e2 ) sin2 φ
cos θ = , sin θ = ,
1 − e cos φ (1 − e cos φ )2
LONEY’S DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE WITH SOLUTION MANUAL (Kindle edition) 121
√
sin φ (1 − e2 ) 1 − e2
and sin θ .d θ = dφ , we have d θ = dφ .
(1 − e cos φ )2 1 − e cos φ
Hence
Z θ Z φ
dθ 1 − e cos φ 1
= d φ = [φ −e sin φ ] ...(6)
0 (1 + e cos θ )2 0 (1 − e2 )3/2 (1 − e2 )3/2

φ 1 − cos φ 1 − e 1 − cos θ 1 − e 2 θ
Now tan2 = = = tan , and
2 1 + cos φ 1 + e 1 + cos θ 1 + e 2
√
1 − e2
sin φ = sin θ
1 + e cos θ
Substituting in (6) we have result (4), and proceed as above.

76. To find the time similarly for a hyperbolic orbit.

√ √ θ
Z θ e + 1 + e − 1 tan
dθ 1 2.
If e > 1, then =√ log √ √
0 1 + e cos θ 2
e −1 θ
e + 1 − e − 1 tan
2
Differentiating with respect to e, we have,
Z θ
− cos θ
2
dθ
0 (1 + e cos θ )  
√ √ θ
−e e + 1 + e − 1 tan 1 sin θ
 2
= 2 log  √ √  + .
(e − 1)3/2 θ e2 − 1 1 + e cos θ
e + 1 − e − 1 tan
2
122 Chapter 5: Uniplanar Motion When the Acceleration is central and varying ...
Z
dθ
∴
(1 + e cos θ )2
Z θ· ¸
1 e cos θ
= − dθ
0 1 + e cos θ (1 + e cos θ )2
√ √ 
θ
1 e + 1 + e − 1 tan 1 sin θ
 2
= − 2 log  √ √  +
(e − 1)3/2 θ e2 − 1 1 + e cos θ
e + 1 − e − 1 tan
2
l 2 l 3/2 a3/2 (e2 − 1)3/2
Hence, since in this case =√ = √ ,
h µ µ
the equation
 (1) of the last article gives 
√ √ θ
a3/2  p 2 sin θ e + 1 + e − 1 tan
t = √ e e − 1 − log √ 2
µ 1 + e cos θ √ θ
e + 1 − e − 1 tan
2
A LITER . Change the variable θ into a new variable φ such that
(1 + e cos θ )(e cosh φ − 1) = e2 − 1, so that √
2 2
e cosh φ 2 (e − 1) sinh φ e2 − 1
cos θ = , sin θ = , and d θ = .
e cosh φ − 1 (e cosh φ − 1)2 e cosh φ − 1
Z θ
dθ
Then 2
0 (1 + e cos θ )
Z φ
1
= 2 (e cosh φ − 1)d φ
(e − 1)3/2 0

1
= [e sinh φ − φ ].
(e2 − 1)3/2
φ cosh φ − 1 e − 1 θ
Now tanh2 = = tanh2 , and
2 cosh φ + 1 e + 1 2
φ
2 tanh p sin θ
sin φ = 2 = e2 − 1 .
2φ 1 + e cos θ
1 − tanh
2
LONEY’S DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE WITH SOLUTION MANUAL (Kindle edition) 123

Z θ
dθ
∴
0 (1 + e cos θ )2
"r #
e sin θ 2 −1 e−1 θ
= − tanh tan ,
e2 − 1 1 + e cos θ (e2 − 1) e+1 2
1 1+x
which is the same as before, since tanh−1 x = log .
2 1−x
77. In the case of a parabolic orbit to find the corresponding time.
d
The equation to the parabola is r = , where 2d is the
1 + cos θ
latus-rectum and is measured from the axis. Hence the equation (3)
of Art. 53 gives
Z Z
2 d2
h.t = r dθ = dθ .
(1 + cos θ )2
Z θ
ht dθ
∴ 2=
d 0 θ
4 cos4
Z 2
1 θ θ θ
= sec2 . sec2 d θ
4 0 2 2
Z µ ¶ µ ¶
1 θ θ θ
= 1 + tan2 d tan
2 0 2 2
· ¸
1 θ 1 3θ
= tan + tan .
2 2 3 2
p √
h µd µ
But 2 = 2 = 3/2 .
d d d

3/2
· ¸ s 3· ¸
d θ 1 3θ 2a θ 1 3θ
∴ t = √ tan + tan = tan + tan if a
2 µ 2 3 2 µ 2 3 2
be the apsidal distance.
124 Chapter 5: Uniplanar Motion When the Acceleration is central and varying ...

78. Motion of a projectile, vacations of gravity being taken into con-

sideration but the resistance of the air being neglected.
The attraction of the Earth at a point outside it at a distance r from
µ
the centre is 2 . Hence the path of a projectile in vacuo is one of the
r
cases of Art. 66, one of the foci of the path described being at the
centre of the Earth.
µ
If R be the radius of the Earth, then 2 = the value of gravity at
R
the surface of the Earth = g, so that µ = gR2 .
The path of a projectile which starts from a point on the Earth’s
surface is therefore an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola according as
2µ
V2 S , i.e. according as V 2 S 2gR.
R
79. The maximum range of a particle starting from the Earth’s sur-
face with a given velocity may be obtained as follows :
Let S be the centre of the Earth and P the point of projection. Let K
be the point vertically above P to which the velocity, V , of projection
is due, so that, by Art. 31, we have
· ¸ · ¸
1 1 1 1
V 2 = 2µ − = 2gR2 − ...(1),
SP SK R R+h
where R is the radius of the Earth and PK is h.
K
L
T
H t
P
o
Q q
H'
M

S
LONEY’S DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE WITH SOLUTION MANUAL (Kindle edition) 125

If H be the second focus of the path, the semi-major axis is

1
(R + PH).
2
Hence, by equation (4) of Art. 66,
· ¸ · ¸
2 2 1 1
V2 = µ − = 2gR2 − .
SP R + PH R R + PH
By comparing this with equation (1) we have PH = h, so that the
locus of the second focus is, for a constant velocity of projection, a
circle whose centre is P and radius h. It follows that the major axis
of the path is SP + PH or SK.
The ellipse, whose foci are S and H, meets a plane LPM, passing
through the point of projection, in a point Q, such that SQ + QH =
SK. Hence, if SQ meet in T the circle whose centre is S and radius
SK, we have QT = QH. Since there is, in general, another point, H 0 ,
on the circle of foci equidistant with H from Q, we have, in general,
two paths for a given range.
The greatest range on the plane LPM is clearly Pq where qt equals
qO. Hence Sq + qP = Sq + qO + OP = Sq + qt + PK = SK + PK.
Therefore q lies on an ellipse, whose foci are the centre of the
Earth and the point of projection, and which passes through K.
Hence we obtain the maximum range.

80. Suppose that the path described by a planet P about the Sun S
is the ellipse of the figure. Draw PN perpendicular to the major axis
and produce it to meet the auxiliary circle in Q. Let C be the centre.
The points A and A0 are called respectively the Perihelion and
Aphelion of the path of the planet.
126 Chapter 5: Uniplanar Motion When the Acceleration is central and varying ...

Q
P B

q f
A A'
N S C

The angle ASP is called the True Anomaly and the angle ACQ the
Eccentric Anomaly. In the case of any of the planets the eccentricity
of the path is small, being never as large as 0.1 except in the case of
Mercury when it is 0.2; the foci of the path are therefore very near
C, the ellipse differs little in actual shape from the auxiliary circle,
and hence the difference between the, True and Eccentric Anomaly
is a small quantity.
2π
If be the time of a complete revolution of the planet, so that n is
n
its mean angular velocity, then nt is defined to be the Mean Anomaly
and n is the Mean Motion. It is clear therefore that nt would be the
Anomaly of an imaginary planet which moved so that its angular
velocity was equal to the mean angular velocity of P.√
2π 2π π
Since = √ a3/2 (Art. 66), ∴ n = 3/2 .
n µ a
Let θ be the True Anomaly ASP, and φ the Eccentric Anomaly
ACQ.
LONEY’S DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE WITH SOLUTION MANUAL (Kindle edition) 127

If h be twice the area described in a unit of time, then

h
t = Sectorial area ASP
2
= Curvilinear area ANP + triangle SNP

b
= × Curvilinear area ANQ + triangle SNP
a
b 1
= × (Sector ACQ - triangle ANQ) + [Link]
a 2
µ ¶
b 1 2 1 1
= a φ − a2 sin φ cos φ + (a cos φ − ae).b sin φ
a 2 2 2
ab
= (φ − e sin φ ).
2
By the polar equation to a Conic Section, we have
l a(1 − e2 )
SP = = , and SP = a − e CN = a(1 − e cos φ ).
1 + e cos θ 1 + e cos θ
∴ (1 − e cos φ )(1 + e cos θ ) = 1 − e2 ,
cos φ − e
and ∴ cos θ = ...(2).
l − e cos φ
81. If e be small, a first approximation from (1) to the value of φ is
nt, and a second approximation is nt + e sin nt.
From (2), a first approximation to the value of θ is φ , and a second
approximation is φ + λ where
cos φ − e
cos φ − λ sin φ = , and
1 − e cos φ
e sin φ
∴ λ= = e sin φ approx.
1 − e cos φ
Hence, as far as the first power of e,
128 Chapter 5: Uniplanar Motion When the Acceleration is central and varying ...

θ = φ + e sin φ = nt + e sin nt + e sin(nt + e sin nt) = nt + 2e sin nt.

a(1 − e2 )
Also SP = = a(1 − e cos θ ), to the same approximation,
1 + e cos θ
= a − ae cos(nt + 2e sin nt) = a − ae cos nt.
If an approximation be made as far as squares of e, the results are
found to be
e2 5e2
φ = nt + e sin nt + sin 2nt, θ = nt + 2e sin nt + sin 2nt, and
½ 2 ¾ 4
e2
r = a 1 − e cos nt + (1 − cos 2nt) .
2
82. From equation (2) of Art. 80, we have
θ 1 − cos θ (1 + e)(1 − cos φ ) 1 + e 2 φ
tan2 = = = tan
2 1 + cos θ (1 − e)(1 + cos φ ) 1 − e 2
so that "r #
1−e θ
φ = 2 tan−1 tan , and
1+e 2
r
φ 1−e θ
2 tan 2 tan
2 1+e 2 √ sin θ
sin φ = = = 1 − e2 .
φ 1 − e θ 1 + e cos θ
1 + tan2 1+ tan
2 1+e 2
Hence, from equation (1) of the same article, remembering that
√
n = µ /a3/2 , we have
" (r ) #
a 3/2 1−e θ p sin θ
t=√ 2 tan−1 tan − e 1 − e2 .
µ 1+e 2 1 + e cos θ
This is the result of Art. 75 and gives the time of describing any
arc of the ellipse, starting from perihelion.
LONEY’S DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE WITH SOLUTION MANUAL (Kindle edition) 129

83. When a particle is describing an elliptic orbit, it may happen that

at some point of the path it receives an impulse so that it describes
another path; or the strength of the centre of force may be altered so
that the path is altered. To obtain the new orbit we shall want to know
how the major axis has been altered in magnitude and position, what
is the new eccentricity, etc.
The new orbit will not necessarily be an ellipse and the student
will find it a useful exercise to examine the various cases for him-
self. Similar consideration apply when the initial orbit is a circle,
hyperbola, or parabola.

84. Tangential disturbing force.

Let APA0 be the path of a particle moving about a centre of force at
S, and let H be the other focus.
When the particle has arrived at P let its velocity be changed to
v + u, the direction being unaltered; let 2a0 be the new major axis.
Then we have
· ¸ · ¸
2 1 2 1
v2 = µ − ; (v + u)2 = − ...(1).
SP a SP a0
P

H
A’ A
S H’

1
Hence, by subtraction, we have Since the direction of motion is
a0
unaltered at P, the new focus lies on PH; and, if H 0 be its position,
we have HH 0 = (H 0 P + SP) − (HP + SP) = 2a0 − 2a.
130 Chapter 5: Uniplanar Motion When the Acceleration is central and varying ...

If the change of velocity u be small and equal to δ v, say, then by

µ
differentiating the first of equations (1) we have 2vδ v = 2 δ a.
a
[For SP is constant as far as these instantaneous changes are con-
cerned.]
2v.δ v.a2
Hence δ a, the increase in the semi-major axis = ...(2).
µ
Again, since HH 0 is now small, we have
HH 0 sin H 2δ a. sin H
tan HSH 0 = = .
2ae + HH 0 cos H 2ae

Hence δ ψ , the angle through which the major axis moves

δ a sin H 2va
= HSH 0 = = . sin H.δ v ...(3).
ae eµ
Since the direction of motion at P is unaltered by the blow, the
v+δv δv
value of h is altered in the ratio so that δ h = h.
v v
2
But h = µ a(1 − e ).2

∴ 2hdh = µδ a(a − e2 ) − µ a.2eδ e.

δv 2
∴ µ a.2eδ e = 2vδ v.a2 (1 − e2 ) − 2 h ,
v
δ v (1 − e2 ) av2 − µ
so that δ e = . . ...(4).
v e µ
This gives the increase in the value of the eccentricity.

2π
Since the periodic time T = √ a3/2 .
µ
δ T 3 δ a 3vaδ v
∴ = = ...(5).
T 2 a µ
85. If the disturbing force is not tangential, the velocity it produces
must be compounded with the velocity in the orbit to give the new
LONEY’S DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE WITH SOLUTION MANUAL (Kindle edition) 131

velocity and tangent at the point P. The equations (1) or (2) of the
last article now give the magnitude, 2a0 , of the new major axis.
Also since the moment of the velocity of the point P about the
focus S is equal to
p q
µ × semi-latus-rectum, i.e. to µ a0 (1 − e02 )

we obtain the new eccentricity.

Finally by drawing a line making with the new tangent at P an
angle equal to that made by SP, and taking on it a point H 0 , such that
SP + H 0 P is equal to the new major axis, we obtain the new second
focus and hence the new position of the major axis of the orbit.

86. Effect on the orbit of an instantaneous change in the value of the

absolute acceleration µ .
When the particle is at a distance r from the centre of force, let the
value of µ be instantaneously changed to µ 0 , and let the new values
of the major axis and eccentricity be 2a0 and e0 .
Since the velocity is instantaneously unaltered in magnitude, we
have µ ¶ µ ¶
2 1 2 1
µ − = v2 = µ 0 − ...(1),
r a r a0
an equation to give a0 .
The moment of the velocity about S being unaltered, h remains the
same, so that
q q
µ a(1 − e2 ) = h = µ 0 a0 (1 − e02 ) ...(2),

giving e0 .
132 Chapter 5: Uniplanar Motion When the Acceleration is central and varying ...

The direction of the velocity at distance r being unaltered, we ob-

tain the new positions of the second focus and of the new major axis
as in the previous article.
If the change δ µ in µ , be very small the change δ a in a is obtained
by differentiating the first equation in (1), where v and r are treated
δa δµ
as constants, and we have 2 = −v2 . 2 .
a µ
So, from (2), we have, on taking logarithmic differentials,
µ ¶
δ µ δ a 2eδ e 2eδ e δ µ v2 a δµ v2 a
+ − = 0. ∴ = − 2 δµ = 1− .
µ a 1 − e2 1 − e2 µ µ µ µ
2π
Again, since the periodic time T = √ a3/2 ,
µ
µ ¶
dT 3 δ a 1 δ µ 1δµ 3av2
∴ = − =− 1+ .
T 2 a 2 µ 2 µ µ

EXAMPLES

1. If the period of a planet be 365 days and the eccentricity e is

1
, show that the times of describing the two halves of the orbit,
60
bounded·by the latus¸ rectum passing through the centre of force,
365 1
are 1+ very nearly.
2 15π
2. The perihelion distance of a comet describing a parabolic path is
1
of the radius of the Earth’s path supposed circular; show that the
n
time that the comet will remain within the Earth’s orbit is
r
2 n+2 n−1
. . of a year.
3π n 2n
[If S be the Sun, a the radius of the Earth’s path, A the perihelion
of the comet’s path, and P the intersection of the paths of the earth
LONEY’S DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE WITH SOLUTION MANUAL (Kindle edition) 133

2a
n 2
and comet, then a = SP = , so that cos θ = − 1, and
1 + cos θ n
θ √
therefore tan = n − 1.
2
2π
Now use the formula of Art. 77, remembering that √ a3/2 =
µ
one year.]
3. The Earth’s path about the Sun being assumed to be a circle, show
that the longest time that a comet, which describes a parabolic
2
path, can remain within the Earth’s orbit is of a year.
3π
4. A planet, of mass M and periodic time T , when at its greatest dis-
tance from the Sun comes into collision with a meteor of mass m,
moving in the same orbit in the opposite direction with velocity
m
v; if be small, show that the major axis of the planet’s path is
M
reduced by r
4m vT 1 − e
. .
M π 1+e
5. When a periodic comet is at its greatest distance from the Sun
its velocity v is increased by a small quantity δ v. Show that the
comet’s least distance from the Sun is increased by the quantity
½ 3 ¾1/2
a (1 − e)
4δ v. .
µ (1 + e)
6. A small meteor, of mass m, falls into the Sun when the Earth is
at the end of the minor axis of its orbit; if M be the mass of the
Sun, show that the major axis of the Earth’s orbit is lessened by
m 2m
2a , that the periodic time is lessened by of a year, and that
M M
b m
the major axis of its orbit is turned through an angle . .
ae M
 134 Chapter 5: Uniplanar Motion When the Acceleration is central and varying ...

7. The Earth’s present orbit being taken to be circular, find what its
1
path would be if the Sun’s mass were suddenly reduced to of
n
what it is now.
8. A comet is moving in a parabola about the Sun as focus; when at
the end of its latus-rectum its velocity suddenly becomes altered
in the ratio n : 1, where n < 1; show that the comet will describe
√
an ellipse whose eccentricity is 1 − 2n2 + 2n4 , and whose major
l
axis is , where 2l was the latus-rectum of the parabolic path.
1 − n2
9. A body is moving in an ellipse about a centre of force in the focus;
when it arrives at P the direction of motion is turned through a right
angle, the speed being unaltered; show that the body will describe
an ellipse whose eccentricity varies as the distance of P from the
centre.
10. Two particles, of masses m1 and m2 , moving in co-planar parabo-
las round the Sun, collide at right angles and coalesce when their
common distance from the Sun is R. Show that the subsequent path
of the combined particles is an ellipse of major axis
(m1 + m2 )2
R.
2m1 m2
11. A particle is describing an ellipse under the action of a force to one
of its foci. When the particle is at one extremity of the minor axis
a blow is given to it and the subsequent orbit is a circle; find the
magnitude and direction of the blow.
12. A particle m is describing an ellipse about the focus with angular
momentum mh, and when at the end of the minor axis receives a
small impulse mu along the radius vector to the focus. Show that
4abeu
the major axis of the path is altered by , that the eccentric-
h
 LONEY’S DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE WITH SOLUTION MANUAL (Kindle edition) 135

ua
ity is altered by (1 − e2 )3/2 , and that the major axis is turned
h
au(1 − e2 )
through the angle , where a, b are the semi-axes and e
h
the eccentricity of the ellipse.
13. A particle is describing a parabolic orbit (latus-rectum 4a) about
a centre of force (µ ) in the focus, and on its arriving at a distance
r from the focus moving towards the vertex the centre of force
ceases to act for a certain time τ . When the force begins again
to operate prove that the new orbit will be an ellipse, parabola or
hyperbola according as
r
r−a
τ <=> 2r .
2µ
14. Show that the maximum range of a projectile on a horizontal plane
R+h
through the point of projection is 2h. , where R is the radius
R + 2h0
of the Earth, and h is the greatest height to which the projectile can
be fired. [Use the the result of Art. 79.]
15. When variations of gravity and the spherical shape of the Earth are
taken into account, show that the maximum
µ ¶ range attainable by a
h
gun placed at the sea level is 2R sin−1 , and that the necessary
µ ¶ R
1 h
angle of elevation is cos−1 , where R is the Earth’s radius
2 R
and h is the greatest height above the surface to which the gun can
send the ball.
16. Show that the least velocity with which a body must be projected
from the Equator of the Earth so as to hit the surface again at the
North Pole is about 7.2 km per second, and that the corresponding
o
direction of projection makes an angle of 67 12 with the vertical at
the point of projection.
136 Chapter 5: Uniplanar Motion When the Acceleration is central and varying ...

ANSWERS WITH HINTS

Art. 74 EXAMPLES.
10. 686.7 days 13. 2.56; .23
Art. 86 EXAMPLES.
7. Hyperbola, n > 2