Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

Most of the electric power generated and used in the world is in the form of
alternating current (a.c.). This is because.
(i) Alternating voltage can easily and efficiently be converted from one value to other
by means
(ii) The alternating curent energy can be transmitted and distributed over long distances
economically without much loss of energy.
Alternating Curent (a.c.)
The magnitude of alternating current (a.c.) changes continuously with time and its
direction is reversed periodically.
It is represented by

I  I0 sin t or I  I0 cos t

Here I is instantaneous value of current and I0 is the peak value or maximum value
of a.c.  is called angular frequency of a.c.

2 1
where    2f  f(freqency)
T T

Where T is the time period of a.c. It is equal to the time taken by the a.c. to
go through one complete cycle of variations.

Also f is the frequency of a.c. It is equal to the number of complete cycles of

variations gone through by the a.c. in one second.
Similarly the alternating e.m.f. may be represented by

E  E0 sin t or E  E0 cos t

In a.c. circuits, two additional circuit elements are used. These are inductor (L)
and capacitor (C). Thus current and voltage in a.c. circuit are controlled by three
circuit elements R,
 The voltage across a pure inductor L is given by

dI
VL
dt

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

Where dI/dt is rate of change of current. The above equation shows that an
inductor affects voltage only when current In change with time.
 For an ideal capacitor of capacitance c,
Q = CV

dQ d(CV)
As I  I
dt dt

dv
or IC
dt

where dv/dt is rate of change of potential. The equation shows that a capacitor
affects the current only when v changes with time.

Mean or Average value of Alternating Current

It is defeined as that value of steady current which would send the same amount
of charge through a circuit in the time of half cycle (i.e. T/2) as is sent by the
a.c. through the same circuit, in the same time.
 The mean or average value of a.c. over one complete cycle is zero. So we can
calculate the mean or average value of a.c. over any half cycle.

I  I0 sin t

Let an alternating current be represented by

If the strength of current is assumed to remain constant for a small time dt, then
small amount of charged sent in a small time dt is

dq  I dt

Let q be the total charge sent by a.c. in the first half cycle (O  T /2)

T /2 T /2

q  I dt or q  
0
I0 sin tdt
0

T /2
cos t 
q  I0   [T  2]
  

I0  T 

 cos  2  cos 0º 

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

I0
 cos   cos 0º 


2I0
q ...(1)


If Iav represent the mean or average value of a.c. over the 1st half cycle then

I
q  Iav  ...(2)
2

from equation (1) and (2) we get

T I 2I0
Iav  2 0 
2  2 / T

2I0
Iav   0.637I0


Hence mean or average value of a.c. over positive half cycle measure alternating
current/voltage. They record zero readnig, when used in a.c. circuit, because
average value of alternating current/voltage over a full cycle is zero.

Root Mean Square Valeu of Alternating Current

It is defined as that value of steady current, which would generate the same
amount of heat in a given resistance in a given time, as it done by the a.c., when
passed through the same resistance for the same time.

The r.m.s. value is also called effective value of a.c. or virtual value of a.c. It is
represented by Irms or Iv .

Let an alternating current is represented by

I  I0 sin t ...(1)

Let this current flow through a resistance R. In a small time dt, the amount of
heat produced in resistance R is

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

dH  I2R dt ...(2)

In one complete cycle (time O  T), the total amount of heat produced in the
resitance R is

T
H   I2 Rdt
0

T
or H   (I02 sin2 t) Rdt
0

T
(1  cos2t)
H I02R  dt
0
2

T T
I02R  
H   .dt   cos2tdt 
2  0 0 

T
I02R  sin2t 
H  t
2  2  0

I02R  sin2T 
H T ( T  2)
2  2 

I02RT
so H ...(3)
2

If r.m.s. value or virtual value of a.c. is represented by Irms , then the amount of
heat produced in the same resistance R in the same time T would be
2
H  Irms RT ...(4)

so from eq. (3) and (4)

2 I02RT
Irms RT 
2

I0
Irms   0.707 I0
2

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

Hence the r.m.s value or virtual value or effective by a.c. is 0.707 times the peak
value of a.c. or we can say 70.7% of the peak value of a.c.
Note: Alternating current/voltage are measured by a.c. ammeter/voltmeter respectively.
These instruments are called hot wire instruments and they measure only virtual
or r.m.s. values of alternating currents/voltages.
A.C. Circuit Containing Resistance only
Let a source of alternating e.m.f is connected to a pure resistance R. Suppose the
alternating e.m.f supplied is represented by

E  E0 sin t ...(1)

Let I be the current in the circuit at any instant t. The potential difference
developed across R will be IR.
This must be equal to e.m.f. applied at that instant

IR  E  E0 sin t

E0
or I sin t  I0 sin t ...(2)
R

E0
where I0  (Maximum value of current)
R

* The behaviour of R in d.c. and a.c. circuit is the same. R can reduce a.c. as well
as d.c. equally effectively.
By comparing equation (1) and (2) we can see that in an a.c. circuit containing R
only, the voltage and current are in the same phase.

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

Phasor Diagram
A rotating vector that represents a quantity varying sinusoidally with time is
called a phasor.
(i) In phasor diagram, peak values of alternating current (I 0) and alternating e.m.f.
(E0) are represented by arrows called phasors.
(ii) The are inclined to horizontal axis at T and rotate in the anticlockwise
direction.
The length of the arrow represents the maximum value of the quantity i.e.
I 0 and E0.

(iii) The projection of the arrow on any axis represents the instantaneous value of the
quantity.
(iv) The phasor difference between the two alternating quantities is represented by
 
the angle between the two vectors E0 and I0 .

(v) In the a.c. circuit containing R only, current and voltage are in the same phase i.e.
the phase angle between aternating voltage and current through R is zero.
A.C. Circuit Containing Inductance only
Let a source of e.m.f. is connected to a circuit containing a pure inductance only
suppose the alternating e.m.f supplied is given by

E  E0 sin t

It dI/dt is the rate of change of current through L at any instant, then induced
e.m.f. in the inductor at the same instant is

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

dI
e  L
dt

The negative sign indicates that induced e.m.f. oppose the change of current.
To maintain the flow of current in this circuit, applied voltage must be equal and
opposite to the induced voltage.

 dI 
E    L   E0 sin t
 dt 

E0
or dI  sin t dt
L

By integrating both sides we get

E0
 dI  L 
sin t dt

E0   cos t  E0
I   cos t
L    L

E0 
I sin   t 
L 2 

E0 
or I sin  t  
L  2

The current (I) will be maximum (I 0), when sin(t   /2)  maximum  1

E0
so I0 
L

Hence I  I0 sin(t   /2)

So we find that in an a.c. circuit containing L only, alternating current I Lags

behind the alternating voltage E by a phase angle of 90º or we can say one fourth
of a period.
Phasor Diagram
In the phasor diagarm of a.c. circuit containing L current lags behind the e.m.f by
90º, so the phasor representing I 0 is turned clockwise through 90º from the
direction of E0 .

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

The projection of these phasors on y-axis give instantaneous values E and I.

Here L represents the effective resistance offered by inductacne L. This is

called inductance reactance and is dentoed by xL .

so XL  L  2fL f  frequency of a.c. supply

* In dc circuits f = 0 so XL  0 so that a pure inductance offers zero resistance

to d.c. It means a pure inductor cannot reduce d.c.

henry volt
SI unit of inductive reactance is ohm. () XL  L    ohm()
sec sec.  amp/ se .

A.C. Circuit Containing Capacitance Only

Let a source of alternating e.m.f. is connected to a capacitor only of capacitance
C. Suppose the alternating e.m.f. supplied is

E  E0 sin t

The current flowing in the circuit transfer charge to the plates of the capacitor.
This produces a potential difference between the plates.

At any instant t, suppose q is the charge on the capacitor. So the potential

difference across the plates of capacitor is
V = q/c
At every instant the potential difference V must be equal to the [Link]. applied so
V = E

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

q
 E0 sin t
c

or q  CE0 sin t

If I is the instantaneous value of currentin the circuit at instant t, then

dq d
I  (CE0 sin t)
dt dt

I  CE0 (cos t).

E0 
I sin  t  
1/ c  2

 
The current will be maximum I  I0 , when sin  t   = maximum = 1
 2

E0
so I0 
1/ c

and I  I0 sin(t   /2)

we find that in an a.c. circuit containing c only alternating current c only alternating
current I leads the alternating e.m.f. by a phase angle of 90º.
Phasor Diagram

The phasor I0 is turned anticlockwise through 90º from the direction of phasor

E0 . These projections on y-axis gives the instantaneous values of E and I.

Here 1/c represents effective resistance offered by the capacity. This is called
capacitive rectance and is denoted by xC .

1 1
xc  
c 2fc

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

* In dc circuit f = 0 so xc   so a capacitor will block d.c.

* SI unit of xc is ohm () .

Note:
(i) R can reduce a.c. well as d.c. L cannot reduce d.c. It can reduce only a.c. c blocks
d.c. but allows a.c. to pass through.
(ii) Through R, alternating current is in phase with alternating voltage.
Through L, alternating current lags behind the alternating voltage by a phase angle
90º.
A.C. Circuit containing Resistance, Inductance and capacitance in series (RLC
Circuit)
Let R, L, C are connected in series of a source of alternating e.m.f. so the current
at any instant through the three elements has the same amplitude and phase.

I  I0 sin t

But the voltage across each element has a different phase releationship with the
current.
(i) The maximum voltage across R is

VR  I0R

In figure, current Phasor I0 is represented along OX. As VR is in phase with


current, so it is represented by the vector OA , along OX.

(ii) The maximum voltage across L is VL  I0XL . As voltage across the inductor leads

the current by 90º, so its is represented by OB along OY, 90º ahead of I 0.

(iii) The maximum value acorss C is VC  I0XC . As the voltage across the capacitor lags

behind the alternating current by 90º, so it is represented by OC rotated

clockwise through 90º from the direction of I0 , OC is along OY’.
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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

As the voltage across L and C have a phae difference of 180º, so net reactive voltage

is (VL  VC ) , assuming that VL  VC . In figure it is represents by OB .
  
The resultant of OA and OB is the diagonal OK .
    
Hence the vector sum of VR ,VL and VC is a phase E0 represented by OK , making

an angle  with current phasor I0 .

so OK  OA2  OB2

 E0  VR2  (VL  VC )2

E0  (I0R)2  (I0 XL  I0 XC )2

or E0  I0 R2  (XL  XC )2

The total effeictve resistance of RLC circuit is called Impendence of the circuit.
It is represented by Z, where

E0
Z R2  (XL  XC )2
I0

* So in an a.c. circuit containing R, L, C, the voltage leads the current by a phase

angle  , where

AK OB' VL  VC I0 XL  I0 XC
tan     
OA OA VR I0R

so the alternating e.m.f. in an RLC circuit is represented by

E  E0 sin(t  )

They may be three cases

(i) When XL  XC , then tan   0

so   0º

(ii) When XL  XC , then tan  is positive so  is positive.

Hence voltage leads the current by a phase angle  .

(iii) When XL  XC , then tan  is negative. So  is negative.

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

Hence voltage lags behind the current by a phase angle  .

Electrical Resonance
The phenomenon of resonance is common among systems that have a tendency of
oscillate at a particular frequency. This frequency is called the natural frequency
of oscillation of that system.
If such a system is driven by an energy source, whose frequency is equal to the
natural frequency of the system, then the amplitude of oscillations becomes large
and resosnace is said to occur.
Series Resosnace Circuit
A circuit in which inductance L, capacitance C and resistance R are connected in
series, and the circuit admits maximum current corresponding to a given frequency
of a.c. is called series resonance circuit.

A very low frequencies, inductance XL  L is negligible but capacitive reactance

XC  1/ C is very high.

As the frequency of alternating [Link]. applied to the cirvuit is increased, XL goes

on incresing and XC goes on decreasing.

For a particular value of  (say r )

XL  XC

1
rL 
rC

1
or r 
LC

1
and 2fr 
LC

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

1
so fr 
2 LC

At this particular frequency fr as XL  XC so

Z  R2  (XL  XC )2

Z  R2  0 = R (minimum)

E0 E0
so here impednece of RLC circuit is minimum and hence the curernt I0  
Z R
becomes maximum.
This frequency is called series resotance frequency

The variation of circuit peak current with the changing frequency of applied
voltage is shown in figure.

(i) It is clear that for frequencies greater than or less than r the values of peak
current are less than the maximum value (I0 )

(ii) At   r the value of peak current is maximum (I0 ) .

Applications
Series resonance circuit is used in radio and T.V. receiver sets.
The antenna of a radio/T.V. intercepts signals from many broadcasting stations.
To receive one particular radio station/T.V. channel, we tune our receiver set by
changing the capacitance of a capacitor in the tunning circuit of the set such that
resonance frequency of the circuit becomes equal to the frequency of the desired
station.
Therefore the resonance occurs and the amplitude of current with the frequency
of the signal from the desired station becomes maximum and it is received in our

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

set.
Half power frequencies
In RLC cricuit the current at resonance is maximum. At both sides of the resonating
frequency the curernt decreases with increase or decrease in frequency.
The power of a circuit is directly proportional to the square of the current
( P  I2 ). If we want to decrease the power upto half then the current should be

1
times of its initial value.
2

In the both sides of fr there are two frequencies f1 and f2 at whcih the current

is (Irms ) max / 2 , hence the power at these frequencies f1 and f2 becomes half.

so these frequencies are called “half power frequencies”. On the graph P1 and
P2 are called the half power points.

Band Width
The difference of half power frequencies is called band width. It is represented
by  or  f .

Band width  or f  f2  f1

If the effective current at half power points is Irms then-

1
Irms
2
R (Irms )max
2
R
2

(Irms )max
Irms   0.707 (Irms )max
2

1
so the current at half power points P1 nad P2 becomes or 0.707 times of the
2
curernt at resonance.
so that by putting the values in above equation.

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

Vrms Vrms

 1 
2
2R
R   L 
2

 C 

2
 1 
or R   L 
2
  2R
2

 C 

1
or L  R
C

1
For point P1 , 1L   R ...(1)
1C

1
For point P2 , 2L   R ...(2)
2C

by adding equation (1) and (2) we get

1  2 1
(1  2 )L   0
12 C

1
or 1 2 
LC

bu subtracting equation (2) by (1) we get

1 1 1 
( 2  1 )L      2R
C  1 2 

2  1
or ( 2  1 )L   2R
C12

2  1
( 2  1 )L   2R
1
C
LC

(2  1 )  2L  2R

R
2  1 
L

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

The difference of frequencies corresponding to the half power points is called

band width

R
f2  f1   Band width
2L

Q. Factors of Resonance Circuit

The characteristic of a series resonant circuit is determined by the factor or
quality factor of the circuit.
It defines sharpness of tuning at resonance.
The Q-factors of a series resonant circuit is defined as the ratio of the voltage
developed across the inductance or capacitance at resonance to the impressed
voltage, which is the voltage applied across R.

Voltage across L or C
Q
applied voltage (  voltage across R)

VL VC
Q Q
VR VR

(rL)I rL (1/ rC)I 1

Q  Q 
RI R RI RCr
1 1
using r  using r 
LC LC
L 1 1
Q Q LC
R LC RC

1 L 1 L
Q Q
R C R C
* As R is increase, Q factor of the circuit decreases.
* The values of Q usually vary from 10 to 100
* The electronic circuits with high Q values would respond to a very narrow range
of frequencies and sharper is the resonance.
Average Power in RLC circuit
Let the alternating e.m.f applied to an RLC circuit is

E  E0 sin t

If alternating current developed lags behind the applied e.m.f by a phase angle
 , then

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

I  I0 sin(t  )

d
Power at instant t,  EI
dt

dW
so  E0 sin t  I0 sin(t  )
dt

 E0I0 sin t(sin t cos   cos t sin )

 E0I0 sin2 t cos   E0 I0 sin t cos t sin 

E0I0
 E0I0 sin2 t cos   sin2t sin 
2

If this instantaneous power is assumed to remains constant for a small time dt, then
small amount of work done in this time is-

E0 I0
d  (E0I0 sin2 t cos   sin2t sin )dt
2

Total work done over a complete cycle is

T T
E0 I0
   E0T0 sin2 t cos dt   sin2t sin dt
0 0
2

T T
E0 I0
  E0 I0 cos   sin2 t dt  sin   sin2t dt
0
2 0

T T
T
0 sin tdt  2 and  sin t dt  0
2
As
0

T
   E0I0 cos  
2

 Average power in the RLC circuit over a complete cycle is


Pav 
T

E0 I0 cos  T
so Pav  
T 2

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

E0 I0
Pav   cos 
2 2

Pav  Erms Irms cos 

Hence average power over a complete cycle in an induce circuit is the product of
r.m.s. e.m.f. and r.m.s. current and cosine of the phase angle between the voltage
and current.
* The above relation is applicable to all a.c. circuits.

cos  and z will have appropriate values for different circuits.

(i) Only R circuit-

Z R and cos   1

(ii) Only L circuit-

Z  XL and cos   0

(iii) Only C circuit-

Z  XC and cos   0

(iv) In RLC circuit-

R
Z  R2  (XL  XC )2 and cos  
Z

(v) In RL circuit-

R
Z  R2  XL2 and cos  
Z

(vi) In RC circuit-

R
Z  R2  XC2 and cos  
Z

(vii) In LC circuit-

Z  (XL  XC )2  XL  XC , cos   0 and   90º

Power Factor of an A.c. circuit

We know that the average power in RLC circuit is given by

P  Erms Irms cos 

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

P is called true power, (Erms Irms ) is called apparent power or virtual power and
cos  is called power factor of the circuit.

True Power (P)

Power factor (cos ) 
apparent Power

From diagram-

VR
cos  
E0

I0R R
 
I0Z Z

R
Power factor  cos  
Z

(i) In a non-inductive circuit, XL  XC

R R
 Power factor  cos   
R
1
R2

  0º

This is the maximum value of power factor.

(ii) In a pure inductor or an ideal capacitor

  90º

 Power Factor = cos   cos 90º 0

so average power consumed in a pure inductor or ideal capacitor

P  Erms Irms cos   0

In actual practice we do not have ideal inductor or ideal capacitor. Therefore,

does occur some dissipation of energy.

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

Choke Coil
Choke coil is simply a coil having a large inductance but
a small resistance.
Construction - Choke coil is made by a thick copper wire
to reduce its resistance. It is wounded on a plated soft
iron core to increase its self inductance.
Principle
At most places, the household electric power is supplied at 220 V, 50 Hz. If such
a source is directly connected to a mercury tube, the tube will be damaged.
To reduce the current, a choke coil is connected in series with the tube.


Power c onsumed i n an A .C. c i r c ui t i s P = E rms I rms cos  for pure inductor   so
2
that P = 0
Hence the advantage of using choke coil to reduce the voltage is that an inductor
does not consume power.
Hence we do not lose electric energy in the form of heat.
Wattless Current or Idle Current
The current which sonsumes no power for its maintenance in the circuit is called
wattless current.
We know that average power over a complete cycle in an inductive circuit
is

P  Erms Irms cos 

In a particular circuit, suppose Erms leads Irms by phase angle  , as shown in

figure.

Irms can be resolved into two rectangular components as

Irms cos  along Erms

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

and Irms sin  perpendicular to Erms .

Thus Irms is the vector sum of two perpendicular components Irms cos  and Irms sin  .

As phase angle between Erms and Irms cos  is zero.

 average power consumed per cycle in the circuit due to component Irms cos 
is-

Pav  Erms (Irms cos )cos 0º

or Pav  Erms Irms cos 


Again as phase angle between Erms and Irms sin  is , so average power consumed
2
per cycle in the circuit due to component Irms sin  is


Pav  Erms (Irms sin ) cos 0
2

Pav  0

Thus, the average power consumed/cycle in the a.c. circuit is wholly due to
compound Irms cos  of the virtual current.

The component Irms sin  makes no contribution to the consumption of power

in the a.c. circuit.

That is why this component Irms sin  is called the idle compound or wattless

component of a.c. and the component Irms cos  is called wattfull component of a.c.

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

LC Oscillations

A capacitor C is connected to an inductor L through key K2 and a cell is connected

to C through key K1 .

When key K1 is on the cell charges the capacitor to a potential V = q/c, where
q is the charge on capacitor plates at any instant and V is the voltage across the
plates at the same instant.
Some energy from the cell is stored in the dielectric medium between the
plates of capacitor in the form of electrostatic energy, which is

q2
UE 
2C

Now off the key K1 and when key K2 is on then the charged capacitor is connected
to L and starts discharging through L.
An induced e.m.f. develops in the circuit which opposes the growth of current
in L and hence delays it.
When capacitor is completely discharged, the energy stored in the capacitor
appears in the form of magnetic field energy around L, which is

1 2
UB  LI
2

As soon as discharging of capacitor is complete, current stops and magnetic flux

linked develops which starts recharging the capacitor in the opposite direction.
The recharing is also opposed and hence delayred. When capacitor is recharged
completely, the magnetic field energy around L reappears in the form of electric
field energy between the plates. The entire process is repeated.
Thus energy taken one from the cell and given to the capacitor keeps on
oscillating between C and L.
The eight stages in a single cycle of oscillations of LC circuit are shown in figure.

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

Undamped oscillations
If the circuit has no resistance then no loss of energy would occur. The oscillations
produced will be constant amplitude. These are called undamped oscillations.

Dampled oscillations
In actual practice, there occur some losses of energy. So the amplitude of oscillations
goes on decreasing. These are called damped oscillations.

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

A.C. Generator or A.C. Dynamo

An a.c. generator/dynamo is a machine which produces alternating current energy
from mechanical energy.
It is most important applications of the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction.
The generator was designed originally by a yugoslav scientist, Nikola Tesla.
Principle
An a.c. generator/dynamo is based on the phenomeno of electromagnetic induction.
Whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked with a coil changes, an e.m.f. is
induced in the coil.
The direction of current induced is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
Construction
The essential parts of an a.c. generator are-
(i) Armature-
ABCD is a rectangular armature coil. It consist of a Large number of turns of
insulated copper wire wound over a Laminated soft iron core. The coil can be
rotated about the central axis.
(ii) Field Magnets -
N and S are the pole pieces of a strong electromagnet in which the armature coil
is rotated. Axis of rotation is perpendicular to the magnetic field lines.
(iiii) Slip Rings-
R 1 and R 2 are two hollow matallic rings, to which two ends of armature coil are
connected, These rings rotate with the rotation of the coil.

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

(iv) Brushes-
B1 and B2 are two flexible metals plates or carbon rods. They are fixed and are
kept in light contact with R 1 and R 2 respective. The purpose of brushes is to pass
on current from the armature coil to the external load resistance R.
Theory & Working

As the armature coil is rotated in the magnetic field, angle  between the field
and normal to the coil change continuosuly. Therefore magnetic flux Linked with
the coil changes. Ans an e.m.f. is induced in the coil.]
To start with, suppose the coil is perpenduclar to the plane of the paper in which
magnetic field is applied, with AB at fornt and CD at the back.
The amount of flux linked with coil in this position is maximum.
As the coil is rotated anticlockwise, AB moves inwards and CD moves outwards. The
amount of magnetic flux linked with the coil changes.
According to Fleing’s right hand rule, current induced in AB is from A to B and
in CD, it is from C to D. In the external circuit, current flows from B2 to B1.
After half the rotation of the coil, AB is at the back and CD is at the front (figure
(b)). Therefore on rotating further, AB moves outwards and CD moves inwards.
The current induced in AB is from B to A and in CD, it is from D to C. Through
external circuit, current flows from B1 to B2.
Induced current in the external circuit changes direction after every half rotation
of the coil. Hence the current induced in coil is alternating in nature.
Magnitude of induced e.m.f & Induced Current
Let N = number of turns in the coil
A = area enclosed by each turn of the coil.

B = Strength of magnetic field.

 = angle which normal to the coil makes with B at any time t.

So the magnetic flux linked with the coil in this position is-
 
 
  N B .A  NBAcos 

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

or   NBA cos t

Where  is angular velocity of the coil.

As the coil is rotated,  changes and hence an e.m.f. is induced in the coil.
At this instant t, if e is the e.m.f. induced in the coil, then -

d d
e  NABcos t 
dt dt

d
e  –NBA  cos t   NBA   sin t  
dt

or e  NBAsin t ......(2)
The induced e.m.f. will be maximum, when

sin t  maximum  1
by equation (2) we get -

e  e0 sin t

The current supplied by the a.c. generator is also sinusoidal. It is given by-

e e0
I  sin t I  I0 sin t
R R

e
Where I0  = maximum value of current.
R

Transformer
A transformer is an electrical device which is used for changing the a.c. voltages.
A transforme which increases the a.c. voltages is called step up transformer and
a transformer with decreases the a.c. voltage is called a step down.
Principle-
A transformer is based on the principle of mutual induction i.e., whenever the
amount of magnetic flux liked with a coil changes, an e.m.f. is induced in the

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

neighbouring coil.
Construction
A transformer consist of a soft iron core made of laminated sheets, well insulated
from each other.
Two coils P1P2 (Primary coil) and S1S2 (Secondary coil) are wound on the same core,
but are well insulated from each other. Note that both the coils are also insulated
from the core.
The source of alternating e.m.f. (to be transformed) is connected to the primary
coil P1P2 and a load resistance R is connected to the secondary coil S1S2.

Theory & Working

Let the alternating e.m.f. supplied by the a.c. source connected to primary is-
Ep = Eo sin t

The alternating primary current induces an alternating magnetic flux B in the iron
core. Because the core extends through the turns of secondary, so the induced flux
also extends through the secondary winding.
According to the faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction, the induced e.m.f. per
turn (Eturon) is same for both primary & secondary winding.

dB EP E
Eturn    s
dt NP Ns

Here np, ns represents the total number of turn in the primary and secondary coils
respectively.

Es Ns

EP Np

As we assume that no energy is lost along the way, conservation of energy requires
that.
Input Power = Output Power

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 Class XII Physics : Alternating Current

Ip Es
I pE p = I sE s 
 Is Ep

Es IP Ns
In general   K
Ep Is Np

Here K = transformation ratio

Note : If N s > N p then Es > Ep then the transformer is called step up transformer.
If Ns < Np then Es < Ep then the transformer is called a step down transformer.
Efficiency of transformer
It is defined as the ratio of output power to the input power.
out put power EI
  100%  s s  100%
Input power EpIp
Note: The transformer cannot work on d.c. A transformer cnanges a.c. voltages/currents.
It does not affect the frequency of a.c. when a.c. voltage is raised n time, the
corresponding alternating current reduces to 1/n times.
Energy Losses in a transformer
(i) Copper Loss-
It is the energy loss in the form of heat in the copper coils of a transformer. This
is due to jule heating of conducting wires. These are minimised using thick wires.
(ii) Iron Loss-
It is the energy loss in the form of heat in the iron core of the transformer. This
is due to formation of eddy. Currents in iron core. It is minimised by taking
Laminated cores.
(iii) Leakage of magnetic flux
Due to this the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with each turn of S1S2 is
less than the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with each turn of P1P2. It can
be reduced by winding the primary and secondary coils one over the other.
(iv) Hysteresis Loss
This is the loss of energy due to repeated magnetisation and demagnetisation of
the iron core when a.c. is fed to it. The loss is kept to a minimum by using a
magnetic material which has a low hysteresis loss.
(v) Magnetostriction
It is humming noise of a transformer. Therefore, output power in the best transformer
may be rought 90% of the input power.

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