Chapter

5
Input Force Functions

Introduction
The response of the output variable is affected by the changes in the input variables. For a
reason or else, the process during operation in any plant is frequently subjected to different
disturbances in the inlet variables, therefore; the output (dependent) variables will change
accordingly. The form of this change depends upon how the inlet variables have been changed.
The magnitude and the shape of disturbances in the inlet variables play an important role in
determining the form of process response. The disturbance which occurs in the input variable
is called the input force function. In the control subject, some of these functions are well known
such as (step function, pulse function, impulse function…etc.). Other functions may be random
changes or a combination of two or more regular functions. This will be discussed in detail in
the next sections.

Figure 5.1 shows a single process with one inlet and one outlet variable. The change in inlet
variable is called the disturbance while the change in the output variable is called the
response.

Input variable Output variable

x(t) Process y(t)

Disturbance Response

Fig. 5.1 Block diagram showing input variable, process and output variable.

87
88 Fundamentals of Process Control in Chemical Engineering

In order to determine the response, the input force function should be determined in time
domain and in s-domain as well. The transfer function of the process is expressed in s-domain,
so the response of the process is determined by Eq.5.1

𝑦(𝑡) = ℒ −1 𝑦(𝑠) = ℒ −1 𝑥(𝑠). 𝐺(𝑠) … … … (5.1)

Equation 5.1 shows that the disturbance should be expressed in s-domain x(s) in order to
determine the behavior of the response y(t).

5.1 Input Forces

As we mentioned before, the input forces take different forms, some may be regular
functions, other may random or a combination of two or more regular functions. In this section,
we will discuss the most common functions that represent the disturbances in the control
subject.

5.1.1 Step Function

In this function, the value of the input variable changed suddenly to another value as shown
in Fig. 5.2. The function is expressed, in the time domain and s-domain as follows:

0 𝑡<0
𝑓(𝑡) = { … … … (5.2) Force
𝐴 𝑡≥0
function
f(t)
𝐴
𝐹(𝑠) = … … … (5.3)
𝑠

Where A is the magnitude of the step. A

When we say a unit step change, we mean

Time, t
that the value of A is equal to 1 (i.e., A=1).
Fig. 5.2 Step change of value A.
So, for a unit step change
1
𝐹(𝑠) = … … … (5.4)
𝑠
The step change could be a negative value, that means the value of the inlet variable is suddenly
changed to a lower value as shown in Fig.5.3.

So, the step change is expressed as f(t)

−𝐴
𝐹(𝑠) = … … … (5.5) 0 t
𝑠
A

Fig. 5.3 Negative step change of value A.

 Chapter five Input Force Functions 89

The value of the step-change may be mentioned as a percentage of the steady state value of
the inlet variable, this will be illustrated in Ex. 5.1.

Example 5.1
Water is heated in a stirred tank heater from 25 oC to 40 oC. The steady-state value of inlet
temperature 𝑇𝑖 = 25 𝐶 𝑜 . The inlet temperature is subjected to a step change. Write the change
in the inlet temperature in the s-domain, 𝑇𝑖 (s) in the following cases;

i. The inlet temperature is suddenly increased from 25 oC to 30oC.

ii. A unit step change occurs in the inlet temperature.
iii. The inlet temperature is increased by 30%.
iv. The inlet temperature is decreased by 10oC.

Solution
5
i) 𝑇𝑖 (𝑠) =
𝑠
1
ii) 𝑇𝑖 (𝑠) =
𝑠
0.3(25) 7.5
iii) 𝑇𝑖 (𝑠) = =
𝑠 𝑠
− 10
iv) 𝑇𝑖 (𝑠) =
𝑠

5.1.2 Pulse Function

In this function, the value of the input variable is suddenly changed to another value, then
after a period of time, it returns to the original value, see Fig.5.4. The function is expressed, in
the time domain and the s-domain as follows:
f(t)
0 𝑡<0
𝑓(𝑡) = {𝐴 0≤𝑡 ≤𝑎 … … … (5.6)
0 𝑡>𝑎
A
𝐴 𝐴
𝐹(𝑠) = − 𝑒 − 𝑎𝑠 … … … (5.7)
𝑠 𝑠
t
0 𝑎
𝐴
𝐹(𝑠) = [1 − 𝑒 − 𝑎𝑠 ] … … (5.8)
𝑠
Fig. 5.4 Pulse change of value A.

Note that for a negative pulse function (Fig.5.5) f(t)

−A −A −as
F(s) = − e 0 a
s s
t
− A A −as
F(s) = + e A
s s
A
F(s) = [e− as − 1] … … . (5.9)
s
Fig. 5.5 Negative pulse change of value A.
90 Fundamentals of Process Control in Chemical Engineering

5.1.3 Impulse Function

In this function, the value of the input variable is suddenly changed to another value, and at
the same time, it returns to the original value. In the time domain and s-domain, the function
is expressed as
f(t)
𝑓𝛿(𝑡) = 𝐴 … … … (5.10)

𝐹(𝑠) = 𝐴 … … … (5.11)
Unit impulse means that the value of A=1 A

𝑓𝛿(𝑡) = 1 and 𝐹(𝑠) = 1

𝑡=0 t

Fig. 5.6 Impulse change of value A.

5.1.4 Ramp Function

In this function, the value of the input variable is changed (increased or decreased) at a
certain rate value as shown in Fig.5.7. In the time domain and s-domain, the function is
expressed as:

𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑡 … … … (5.12) f(t)

Where A is the slope of the line

and represents the rate of function change with time. A

𝐴
𝐹(𝑠) = … … … (5.13) 0
𝑠 t

Fig. 5.7 Ramp change of rate A.

5.1.5 Sine Wave Function
Sine wave function means that the input variable varied sinusoidally with the time as
shown in Fig. 5.8. In the time domain, the function is represented as

𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 … … … (5.14)

3
2 tc
1 a
f(t)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-1
-2
-3 t

Fig. 5.8 Sinusoidal wave of amplitude a and frequency 𝜔 .

 Chapter five Input Force Functions 91

Where (a) is the amplitude of the function and ω is the radian frequency

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 … … … (5.15) 𝜔 in 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 and f in Hz (i. e. , cycle /s)

2𝜋
𝜔= … … … (5.16) 𝑡𝑐 is the time of one cycle
𝑡𝑐
In s-domain
𝑎𝜔
𝐹(𝑠) = … … … (5.17)
𝑠2 + 𝜔2

5.1.6 Compound Functions

Sometimes the input variable does not change in simple function but rather in compound
functions which consist of two or more simple functions. The beginning time of each function
is important and plays significant role in defining the input force in both time domain and s-
domain. The examples below show how we can define the input force of the compound
functions.

Example 5.2
An input variable is affected by the function shown in Fig.5.9. Write the function in both the
time and s- domain.

f(t)

A
t
0 a

Fig. 5.9 Compound functions of Ex. 5.2.

Solution
The function f(t) is a ramp function with a slope (A). We note that this function starts at time
𝑡 = 0 and stopped at time 𝑡 = 𝑎. Any function is stopped if it affected by the same function
but with inverse sign. The ramp function is represented by

𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑡

this function is stopped at time 𝑡 = 𝑎, so the stopping function is the same function but with
inverse sign 𝑓(𝑡) = − 𝐴(𝑡 − 𝑎) where a is the beginning of the stopping function.

The whole function can be represented in time domain and s-domain as:
92 Fundamentals of Process Control in Chemical Engineering

𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑡 – 𝐴(𝑡 − 𝑎)
𝐴 𝐴 −𝑎𝑠
𝐹(𝑠) = − 𝑒
𝑠 𝑠

Example 5.3
Find the f(t) and F(s) for the function shown in Fig. 5.10

f(t)

k
t
0 a

Fig. 5.10 Compound functions of Ex. 5. 3.

Solution
The function f(t) consists of three parts. The ramp function 𝑓1 (𝑡) = 𝑘𝑡, the stopping function
𝑓2 (𝑡) = −𝑘 (𝑡 − 𝑎) and the negative step function 𝑓3 (𝑡) = −𝐵. The value of B can be
determined by multiplying the slope (k) and the base of the triangular (a).

𝐵=𝑘𝑎

𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑘𝑡 − 𝑘(𝑡 − 𝑎) − 𝑘𝑎 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑎)

𝑘 𝑘 𝑘𝑎 −𝑎𝑠
𝐹(𝑠) = 2
− 2 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 − 𝑒
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

Example 5.4
Find f (t) and F(s) for the following function

f(t)

t
0 a 2a 3a

Fig. 5.11 Compound functions of Ex. 5.4.

 Chapter five Input Force Functions 93

Solution
The function consists of four step functions.

𝑓1 (𝑡) = 𝑘 step change start at time 𝑡 = 0

𝑓2 (𝑡) = −𝑘 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑎) negative step change start at time 𝑡 = 𝑎

𝑓3 (𝑡) = 𝑘 𝛿(𝑡 − 2𝑎) positive step change start at time 𝑡 = 2𝑎

𝑓4 (𝑡) = − 𝑘 𝛿(𝑡 − 3𝑎) negative step change start at time 𝑡 = 𝑎

Then the whole function in the time domain is

𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑘 − 𝑘 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑎) + 𝑘 𝛿(𝑡 − 2𝑎) − 𝑘 𝛿(𝑡 − 3𝑎)

in s-domain
𝑘 𝑘 − 𝑎𝑠 𝑘 −2𝑎𝑠 𝑘 −3𝑎𝑠
𝐹(𝑠) = − 𝑒 + 𝑒 − 𝑒
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

Example 5.5
Find f (t) and F (s) for the function shown below

f(t)

k2
k2
k1 k1 t
a t1 t2 t3

Fig. 5.12 Compound functions of Ex. 5.5.

Solution
𝐵 = 𝑘1 𝑎
𝐵 𝑘1 𝑎 𝑘1
𝑡1 = 𝑎 + =𝑎+ = 𝑎 (1 + )
𝑘2 𝑘2 𝑘2
𝑘1 𝑘1
𝑡2 = 𝑡1 + 𝑎 = 𝑎 (1 + ) + 𝑎 = 𝑎 (2 + )
𝑘2 𝑘2
𝐵 𝑘1 𝑘1 . 𝑎 𝑘1 𝑘1
𝑡3 = 𝑡2 + = 𝑎 (2 + ) + = 𝑎 (2 + 2 ) = 2𝑎 (1 + )
𝑘2 𝑘2 𝑘2 𝑘2 𝑘2
From Fig. 5.5, We notice that the whole function consists of eight functions
94 Fundamentals of Process Control in Chemical Engineering

𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑘1 𝑡 − 𝑘1 (𝑡 − 𝑎) − 𝑘2 (𝑡 − 𝑎) + 𝑘2 (𝑡 − 𝑡1 ) + 𝑘1 (𝑡 − 𝑡1 ) − 𝑘1 (𝑡 − 𝑡2 ) − 𝑘2 (𝑡 − 𝑡2 )
+ 𝑘2 (𝑡 − 𝑡3 )
𝑘1 𝑘1 −𝑎𝑠 𝑘2 −𝑎𝑠 𝑘2 −𝑡 𝑠 𝑘1 −𝑡 𝑠 𝑘1 −𝑡 𝑠 𝑘2 −𝑡 𝑠 𝑘2 −𝑡 𝑠
𝐹(𝑠) = − 𝑒 − 2𝑒 + 2𝑒 1 + 2𝑒 1 − 2𝑒 2 − 2𝑒 2 + 2𝑒 3
𝑠2 𝑠2 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

Example 5.6
Find f (t) and F (s) for the function below

f(t)

2
k2
k1 t
1 2
Fig. 5.13 Compound functions of Ex. 5.6.

Solution
First, we have to find k1 and k 2
2
𝑘1 = =2
1
2
𝑘2 = = −2
−1
𝑓(𝑡) = 2𝑡 − 2(𝑡 − 1) − 2(𝑡 − 1) + 2(𝑡 − 2)
2 2 2 2
𝐹(𝑠) = 2
− 2 𝑒 −𝑠 − 2 𝑒 −𝑠 + 2 𝑒 −2𝑠
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

Example 5.7
Given the function below in the time domain f(t). Sketch it and write the function in the s-
domain.

𝑓(𝑡) = 2 − 2(𝑡 − 1) + 2(𝑡 − 2) − 2(𝑡 − 3) + 2(𝑡 − 4) + 2𝛿(𝑡 − 5)

 Chapter five Input Force Functions 95

Solution

f(t)

t
1 2 3 4 5

-2

Fig. 5.14 Compound functions of Ex. 5.7.

2 2 −s 2 −2s 2 −3s 2 −4s 2 −5s

F(s) = − e + 2e − 2e + 2e + e
s s2 s s s s
96 Fundamentals of Process Control in Chemical Engineering

5.2 Solved Problems

S.5.1 A system has a transfer function shown below

2
x(s) y(s)
3𝑠 + 1

Fig. S.5.1 Block diagram of problem S.5.1.

Find the response y(t) if the input function x(t) is,

1. A step change of value equal to 6.

2. Unit impulse.

Solution
Response y(t) = ℒ −1 x(s). G(s)
6
1. Step change: x(s) =
s
6 2
y(t) = ℒ −1 ( )
s 3s + 1
1
y(t) = 12 ℒ −1
s(3s + 1)
t
y(t) = 12 [1 − e− 3 ]

2. Unit impulse: 𝑥 (𝑠) = 1

Response y(t) = ℒ −1 x(s). G(s)

2 1
y(t) = ℒ −1 1 ( ) = 2ℒ −1 ( )
3s + 1 3s + 1
2 −t
y(t) = e 3
3
 Chapter five Input Force Functions 97

S.5.2 The input variable to a thermometer is the ambient temperature 𝑇𝑖 which equal to 25oC.
For the following cases, express the change in 𝑇𝑖 in the time domain and sketch it. Write the
function in the s-domain.

i. The ambient temperature is suddenly increased from 25oC to 35oC.

ii. The ambient temperature is suddenly increased from 25 oC to 35oC. Then after 2 minutes,
the temperature suddenly returns to 25oC
iii. The ambient temperature is increased from 25 oC to 35oC at a rate of 2oC per min.
iv. The ambient temperature is suddenly increased by 20%.
v. The ambient temperature is suddenly increased from 25 oC to 35oC and at the same time
returns to the 25oC.
vi. The ambient temperature is increased at a rate of 2 oC per min and after 4 min it keeps
constant at the new temperature.

Solution o
𝑇𝑖 , C
i. The change is step function of magnitude 10
0 𝑡<0
𝑇𝑖 (𝑡) = {
10 𝑡 ≥ 0
10 35 10
𝑇𝑖 (𝑠) =
𝑠 25
0 t
Fig. S.5.2 (a) Compound functions of problem S.5.2.i.

ii. The change is a pulse function of magnitude 10 and a duration of 2 min.

0 𝑡<0
𝑇𝑖 (𝑡) = {10 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2 𝑇𝑖 (t)
0 𝑡>2
10 10 −2𝑠
𝑇𝑖 (𝑠) = − 𝑒
𝑠 𝑠 10
10
𝑇𝑖 (𝑠) = [1 − 𝑒 −2𝑠 ]
𝑠 0 t 2
Fig. S.5.2(b) Compound functions of problem S.5.2. ii.

iii. The change is a ramp function with a rate (slope) of 2 oC per min.

𝑇𝑖 (𝑡) = 2𝑡
2 𝑇𝑖 (t)
𝑇𝑖 (𝑠) =
𝑠2 2
t
0

Fig. S.5.2(c) Compound functions of problem [Link].

 98 Fundamentals of Process Control in Chemical Engineering

iv. The change is a step function of magnitude 0.2(25) = 5

0 𝑡<0
𝑇𝑖 (𝑡) = {
5 𝑡≥0 o
𝑇𝑖 , C
5
𝑇𝑖 (𝑠) =
𝑠
30
5
25
0 t
Fig. S.5.2(d) Compound functions of problem S.5.2. iv.

v. The change is impulse function of magnitude 10 o

𝑇𝑖 (t) C
𝑇𝑖 𝛿(𝑡) = 10

𝑇𝑖 (𝑠) = 10
35
10
25
𝑡=0 t

Fig. S.5.2. e Compound functions of problem S.5.2. v.

vi. The change is compound function consists of ramp function and stopping function.

The increase in temperature= 2𝑡 = 2(4) = 8𝑜 𝐶

o
The new value = 25 + 8 = 33𝑜 𝐶 𝑇𝑖 (t), C

𝑇𝑖 (𝑡) = 2𝑡 − 2(𝑡 − 4)
33
2 2
𝑇𝑖 (𝑠) = 2
− 2 𝑒 −4𝑠 2
𝑠 𝑠
25
0 4 t

Fig. S.5.2(f) Compound functions of problem S.5.2. vi.

 Chapter five Input Force Functions 99

S.5.3 For the function below, find F(s) and f(t)

3
2 k2 k3=2
Solution f(t) k1 b c
0 t
First, we have to find all 1 2 4 5 a
k4=1
the unknown values (k1, k2, a, b and c)
-3
2 1
𝑘1 = = 2 𝑘2 = = 1
1 1
Fig. S.5.3 Compound functions of problem S.5.3.
3
𝑘3 = 2 = ⇒ 𝑎 = 6.5
𝑎−5
3 3
𝑘3 = 2 = = ⇒ 𝑏=8
𝑏−𝑎 𝑏 − 6.5
3
𝑘4 = 1 = ⇒ 𝑐 = 11
𝑐−8
𝑓(𝑡) = 2(𝑡 − 1) − 2(𝑡 − 2) + 1(𝑡 − 4) − 1(𝑡 − 5) − 2(𝑡 − 5) + 2(𝑡 − 8) + 1(𝑡 − 8)
− 1(𝑡 − 11)
2 −𝑠 2 1 1 2 2 1 1
𝐹(𝑠) = 2
𝑒 − 2 𝑒 −2𝑠 + 2 𝑒 −4𝑠 − 2 𝑒 −4𝑠 − 2 𝑒 −5𝑠 + 2 𝑒 −8𝑠 + 2 𝑒 −8𝑠 − 2 𝑒 −11𝑠
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

S.5.4 The time domain of a function is given below. Sketch the function and write the
function in the s-domain.

𝑓(𝑡) = 2𝑡 − 4(𝑡 − 1) + 2(𝑡 − 2) − 2(𝑡 − 3)

Solution
We note that the first term of the function is ramp and the second term is not the stopping
function of the first term, therefore; we have to depart the second term into two parts (i.e.,
−4(𝑡 − 1) = −2(𝑡 − 1) − 2(𝑡 − 1)).

𝑓(𝑡) = 2𝑡 − 2(𝑡 − 1) − 2(𝑡 − 1) + 2(𝑡 − 2) − 2(𝑡 − 3) f(t)

2 2 2 2 2
𝐹(𝑠) = 2
− 2 𝑒 −𝑠 − 2 𝑒 −𝑠 + 2 𝑒 −2𝑠 − 2 𝑒 −3𝑠
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 2

2
0 t
0 1 2 3
Fig. S.5.4 Compound functions of problem S.5.4.
100 Process Control Fundamentals in Chemical Engineering

Problems
P.5.1 Write the following functions in both: time-domain and S-domain

f(t) f(t)
(a) (b)
8

3 4 t
t

f(t) f(t)
(c) (d)

5 8

3 t
3 5 8 10 t
f(t)
)e(
2

20 40
t
10

-2

f(t) (f)

6 7 8
1 4 5 t

-2

Fig. P.5.1 Compound functions of problem P.5.1.

 Chapter five Input Force Functions 101

P.5.2. Given F(s), find f (t) and sketch it

2 2 2 2 2 2
1. 𝐹(𝑠) = 2
− 2 𝑒 −𝑠 − 2 𝑒 −4𝑠 + 2 𝑒 −6𝑠 + 2 𝑒 −7𝑠 − 2 𝑒 −9𝑠
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
1 1 2 2 1 1
2. 𝐹(𝑠) = 2 − 2 𝑒 −𝑠 + 2 𝑒 −3𝑠 − 2 𝑒 −4𝑠 − 2 𝑒 −4𝑠 + 2 𝑒 −5𝑠
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
2 2 2 4 2
3. 𝐹(𝑠) = − 𝑒 −𝑠 − 𝑒 −3𝑠 + 𝑒 −5𝑠 − 𝑒 −7𝑠
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

P.5.3. A system has the transfer function shown below

2
x(s) y(s)
3𝑠 + 1

Fig. P.5.3 Block diagram of problem P.5.3.

Find the response of the system y(t) for the following input functions x(s)
a- Unit step change.
b- Impulse of magnitude (3).
c- Ramp of slope (2).
d- Pulse of magnitude (3) and duration (2).

P.5.4. A system has the transfer function shown below

1
x(s) y(s)
𝑠

Fig. P.5.4(a) Block diagram of problem P.5.4.

Find the system response y (t) for the following input forces:
𝑎) 𝑥(𝑡) = 4(1 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 ) x(t)

b) 70

60 t
0 2
Fig. P.5.4.b Compound functions of problem P.5.4.
102 Fundamentals of Process Control in Chemical Engineering

P.5.5. The time-domain of functions f(t) are given below. Sketch the function and write the
function in s-domain.

1. 𝑓(𝑡) = 2𝑡 − 4(𝑡 − 1) + 2(𝑡 − 2) + 2(𝑡 − 2) − 2(𝑡 − 3) − 2𝛿(𝑡 − 4)

2. 𝑓 (𝑡) = 2𝑡 − 2(𝑡 − 1) − 2𝛿 (𝑡 − 4) + 2(𝑡 − 6) − 4(𝑡 − 7) + 2 (𝑡 − 8)

3. 𝑓(𝑡) = (𝑡 − 2) − (𝑡 − 6) − 6𝛿(𝑡 − 6) + 2(𝑡 − 8) − 2(𝑡 − 9)

4. 𝑓 (𝑡) = 3𝑡 − 3(𝑡 − 2) + 2𝛿 (𝑡 − 4) − 10𝛿 (𝑡 − 6) + 2(𝑡 − 7) − 2 (𝑡 − 8)

5. 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 − (𝑡 − 2) − 4𝛿(𝑡 − 3) + 1.5(𝑡 − 3) − 1.5(𝑡 − 5)

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P.5.6 A first order system, represented by the transfer function 𝐺(𝑠) = , is subjected to
2𝑆+2
impulse change of (-2) unit.
I) What are the steady state gain K and the time constant τ of the system?
II) Find the response and sketch it.