This passage explains Émile Durkheim's idea of social facts and how they form the foundation

of sociology. Here’s a simplified explanation:

Social Facts?
Social facts are ways of behaving, thinking, or feeling that are common in a society. Examples
include laws, customs, moral rules, religious practices, and language.
2. Key Features of Social Facts:

● External to Individuals: Social facts exist outside individuals. They are not created or
controlled by any one person.

● Independent of Personal Will: These facts do not depend on what an individual wants
or thinks. For example, we must follow laws, regardless of personal opinion.

● Coercive in Nature: Social facts have a kind of "force" that influences or controls
individual behavior. For instance, societal norms often pressure people to act in certain
ways.

● 3. Collective Nature:
The true essence of social facts lies in their collective, shared nature. They exist because
people in society come together and create these common rules, beliefs, and practices.

In short, Durkheim treated social facts as real, external forces that shape individuals’ lives.
These facts are created by society as a whole and are essential for studying and understanding
human behavior in sociology.
Emile Durkheim classified social facts into three types, viewing them as part of a
continuum. Here's a simplified explanation:

1. Structural or Morphological Social Facts:

These are the basic features of a society, forming its foundation. They include things like the •
population distribution,• types of housing, and • communication systems. These are the physical
and organizational aspects of society that shape collective life.

2. Institutionalized Social Facts:

These are established and widely accepted norms, rules, and beliefs that represent the

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collective character of a society. Examples include laws, moral codes, religious teachings,
and traditional practices. They are well-defined and widely recognized.

3. Non-Institutionalized Social Facts (Social Currents):

These are less formalized and temporary social phenomena. They haven't yet become fully
established or independent like institutionalized social facts. Examples include emotions or
opinions that emerge in specific situations, such as excitement in a crowd, temporary
outrage over an incident, or a sense of pity triggered by a specific event.

● Continuum of Social Facts:

These three types exist along a spectrum, forming the social environment of a society.

Normal vs. Pathological Social Facts:

Durkheim also distinguished between "normal" and "pathological" social facts:

Normal Social Facts: These are common and typical for a society at a certain stage of its
development. For instance, a small amount of crime exists in every society and is considered
normal.

Pathological Social Facts: These represent abnormalities or deviations from the norm. For
example, a sudden rise in crime rates, moral indifference toward crime, or economic crises
causing chaos are considered pathological because they disrupt societal order.

This framework helps analyze social phenomena by identifying their role and impact on society
Durkheim believed that sociology should be treated as an objective science, like natural
sciences. For this, he set two requirements:

1. The subject of sociology must be unique and different from other sciences.

2. The subject must be observable and explainable, just like facts in other sciences.

According to Durkheim, the subject of sociology is social facts, and he treated social facts as
“things” that can be studied scientifically.

Characteristics of Social Facts

Durkheim identified four main features of social facts:

■ 1. Externality:
Social facts exist outside of individuals. They are not created by one person but exist
independently in society. For example:

Laws, customs, and religious practices are established before we are born and continue after
we die.
Language is another example. It exists independently of any one person and continues
regardless of who speaks it.

■ 2. Constraint:
Social facts impose themselves on individuals. They have a controlling or obligatory force. For
example:

Laws and education systems are imposed on everyone.

In a crowd, shared feelings like excitement or fear affect everyone, showing how collective
emotions control individual behavior.

● 3. Independence:
Social facts are not tied to the personal traits of individuals. They belong to the group or society
as a whole. For instance:

Beliefs and traditions represent collective ideas of a society, not individual choices

● 4. Generality:
Social facts are widespread and apply to many people in a society. For example:

Shared feelings, common practices, and collective customs are general to the entire group, not
specific to one person.

Importance of Social Facts

Social facts are specific to sociology because they come from the association of individuals in a
society.

They represent the collective nature of a group, which is different from individual thoughts or
actions.

Social facts can be categorized, studied, and classified scientifically, making them the core
subject of sociology.

In short, social facts are the collective rules, beliefs, and practices that shape society, and they
are central to Durkheim’s idea of sociology as a science.
Durkheim explained the concepts of externality and constraint to define social facts. Here's a
simplified version of these ideas:
1. Externality of Social Facts

Social facts are external to individuals, which means they exist outside of any one person. This
can be understood in two ways:

Existing before the individual:

When a person is born, they enter an already existing society with its own structure, rules,
beliefs, and practices. These elements are not created by the individual but are learned through
socialization. For example, language, laws, and traditions already exist when we are born.

Part of a larger whole:

Individuals are just small parts of a much bigger system called society. Society is formed by the
interactions between many individuals, not by one person alone.

Durkheim compared this to chemical reactions. For example, water (H₂O) has properties
different from hydrogen and oxygen, the elements that form it. Similarly, society is more than the
sum of its individuals, and social facts emerge from the collective behavior of people.

2. Constraint of Social Facts

Social facts also exercise control or pressure over individuals.

When someone tries to go against social norms, society asserts its control through ridicule,
isolation, or even punishment (legal or moral sanctions). For example:

If someone breaks the law, they face legal punishment.

If someone acts rudely, they might face social disapproval.

However, most people conform to social facts without feeling pressured. This is because they
see these norms and rules as legitimate, not just because they fear punishment. For example,
children are taught how to behave through education, which helps shape them to fit society's
expectations.

Durkheim argued that this control is necessary for society to function smoothly because
individual desires often conflict with the collective needs of society.

Key Points Durkheim Emphasized

1. Social facts are not psychological facts:
Social facts are collective, not individual. For example, a single person’s emotions are personal,
but a group’s shared beliefs or practices are social facts.

2. Social facts are universal but collective:

Just because something is common to many individuals doesn’t make it a social fact. Social
facts are collective in nature and come from the group’s shared beliefs and practices.

3. Social facts are passed down:

These norms, values, and rules are transmitted through socialization, like parents and teachers
teaching children how to behave.

Summary

Social facts are external and independent of individuals but still have the power to control or
influence them. They are essential for maintaining social order and are the central focus of
sociology. Durkheim used these ideas to argue that sociology should study society as a whole,
separate from psychology or individual self-interest.
The Sociological Method by Durkheim

Durkheim emphasized that sociology, like any science, requires a specific method to study its
subject matter: social facts. His method was influenced by the success of biology as a science
of living beings. To study social facts, Durkheim provided clear rules to ensure sociology's
objectivity and scientific rigor.

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Rules for Observing Social Facts

Durkheim's primary rule is to treat social facts as “things.”

Social facts are real and have objective existence in society. However, earlier thinkers treated
them subjectively, either as creations of individual will or as already fully known concepts.
For example, terms like “democracy” and “socialism” are often used casually, based on vague
impressions or prejudices, without a clear understanding of their actual nature.
To make sociology scientific, Durkheim argued that social facts must be studied through the
empirical method (observing evidence) rather than relying on intuition or preconceived notions.
Three Rules for Objectivity in Studying Social Facts

1. Eliminate Preconceptions:
Sociologists must free themselves from personal biases and common beliefs held by society.
They should adopt a neutral and unbiased perspective.
For instance, when studying a social issue like crime, one must not assume crime is only the
result of individual moral failure but instead analyze broader social factors that influence it.

2. Define Concepts Precisely:

Since sociologists often start with little knowledge of a phenomenon, they must focus on its
observable aspects.
For example, in his study of the division of labor, Durkheim used observable indicators like the
type of law (repressive or restitutive) to understand the kind of social solidarity (mechanical or
organic) present in a society.
By using clear, measurable indicators, sociologists can avoid vague interpretations.

3. Separate Social Facts from Individual Manifestations:

Sociologists must examine social facts as collective phenomena rather than individual
occurrences.
Social facts exist as shared rules, norms, or patterns of behavior (e.g., legal rules, moral codes,
or cultural customs) that apply to society as a whole.
For instance, studying the rates of suicide or marriage reveals social trends that go beyond the
personal reasons of individuals.

Social Currents and Statistical Verification

Social facts often manifest as “currents of opinion,” which influence behaviors such as marriage
rates, birth rates, or suicide rates.

These currents are theoretical and cannot be directly observed. However, statistical data helps
sociologists identify and analyze them.

For example, by examining suicide rates across different groups, Durkheim could identify social
factors like integration and regulation affecting the phenomenon.

Example of Suicide Study:

Durkheim’s study on suicide rates is one of the best examples of how social facts can be
objectively analyzed:

He used statistical data to show that suicide rates varied based on factors like religion, marital
status, and social integration.

This demonstrated that suicide was influenced by social currents (collective forces) rather than
just individual psychology.
Summary

Durkheim’s method focused on treating social facts as “things” that are real, observable, and
distinct from individual behavior. To achieve scientific objectivity, he provided three rules:
eliminating biases, defining concepts clearly, and separating social facts from individual cases.
By using tools like statistics, sociologists can analyze social phenomena like marriage, birth,
and suicide rates, uncovering the collective forces that shape society. Durkheim’s approach
established sociology as an independent and scientific discipline.

Distinguishing Between the Normal and the Pathological: Durkheim's Perspective

Why this distinction is important:

Durkheim explains that many writers wrongly label behaviors different from their own as
"pathological" or abnormal. He emphasizes that understanding whether a social fact is normal or
pathological depends on the society in which it exists.

What makes a social fact normal?

1. A social fact is normal if it is common and generally found in a particular type of society.
2. It is also considered normal if it is useful or has a purpose for that type of society.

Example of Crime as a Normal Social Fact:

Crime is often seen as immoral because it violates societal norms. However, Durkheim argues
that scientifically, crime is not abnormal because:

It exists in all societies, regardless of time or place.

Crime contributes to social change. Without occasional violations of norms, societies would
have no opportunity to reevaluate and either reinforce or modify those norms.
:~ Durkheim uses the example of Socrates, who was considered a criminal in ancient Athens for
his independent thinking. Despite being punished, his actions helped create new moral and
social ideas that benefited humanity, like the freedom of thought many enjoy today.

Durkheim’s Inspiration from Medicine:

Durkheim borrowed ideas from medical science, where doctors study both the normal
functioning of the body and its illnesses. This approach helps in understanding the body's
overall nature. Similarly, he studied both normal and pathological aspects of social facts, such
as in his work on the division of labor.

When does a social fact become pathological?

A social fact becomes pathological when it exceeds the usual or "constant" level for a specific
society. For example:

Crime: When crime rates rise significantly above the normal level for a society, it becomes
abnormal.

Suicide: Though suicide is normal as it exists in all societies, the sudden rise in suicide rates in
19th-century Europe made Durkheim study it as a pathological phenomenon.

Conclusion:
Durkheim’s distinction helps us understand that social facts like crime and suicide are not
inherently abnormal. Their normality or pathology depends on their prevalence and function in a
society.

Rules for the Classification of Social Types: Durkheim’s View

Two Views on Society: There are two main views about how we should look at societies:

1. Historians' View: Some historians believe that each society is unique, so comparing them is
not useful.

2. Philosophers' View: Philosophers, on the other hand, argue that all societies belong to the
same human species and that all social development comes from the general nature of human
beings.

Durkheim’s Middle Ground: Durkheim takes a middle approach. He believes that while
societies are different, these differences don’t mean we can’t study them scientifically. We can
still compare societies, classify them, and explain their behaviors. He also says that if we only
focus on the idea that all societies are the same, we’ll miss out on important differences that are
essential for understanding each society.

Why Classify Societies?

Explanation and Comparison: Classifying societies helps us understand their problems and find
appropriate solutions. It also helps us decide whether a social fact (like a behavior or event) is
normal or abnormal, because a social fact is considered normal or abnormal only when we
compare it to a particular type of society.

Social Morphology: Durkheim uses the term social morphology to describe this classification
process. He refers to "types" of societies, which are groups of societies with similar
characteristics. For example, “bachelors” and “married persons” are two types of social groups,
and Durkheim showed that suicide rates are higher among bachelors than married people
(though this is a general trend, not about individual cases).
How Should We Classify Societies?

Durkheim says we should study each society carefully and compare them to each other. By
doing this, we can identify similarities and differences and classify societies into types. He
stresses the importance of studying societies as a whole before making comparisons: “Isn’t it
the rule in science to study the particular before we generalize?”

One Observation Can Be Enough: Durkheim also believes that in many cases, one good
observation or experiment can help establish a scientific rule. So, we don’t need to study every
society within a type to know what is typical for that type—just a few observations may be
enough.

The Degree of Organization in Societies: Durkheim proposes classifying societies based on

their degree of organization. He starts with the simplest type of society, the “horde” (a small,
simple group of people). These hordes can combine to form slightly more complex groups
called simple polysegmental societies. These can combine again to form even more complex
societies, known as polysegmental societies doubly compounded.

Varieties Within Each Type: Within these broad social types, we can further classify societies
based on whether the different segments or groups in the society have fully merged or if they
remain separate in some way.

Biological Approach to Classification: John Rex examines Durkheim's biological approach to

classifying societies. He finds that this approach can be useful when we are simply describing or
classifying societies and formulating general types. However, problems arise when we try to
apply this biological approach to the history of societies. In history, societies evolve over time,
and trying to fit them into rigid “species” or categories can be difficult because history is not
always as orderly as biological classification.

Conclusion: Durkheim's idea of classifying societies into types based on their organization helps
us understand their structure and the problems they face. This method allows us to compare
societies scientifically, though we need to be careful when studying historical changes in
societies, as evolution and history complicate this approach.

Rules for the Explanation of Social Facts: Durkheim's Approach

Durkheim explains two main ways to understand social facts: the causal approach and the
functional approach.

1. Causal Explanation (Why?)

The causal approach is concerned with understanding why a social phenomenon exists. It looks
at the causes that bring about a social fact. For example, if we want to know why crime exists,
we would try to identify the factors that cause crime to happen in a society.

2. Functional Explanation (How?)

The functional approach looks at the function of a social fact — that is, what role it plays in
maintaining the stability or well-being of society. Instead of asking why something exists, we ask
how it serves the society. For example, punishment exists because it helps maintain social unity
by making sure people follow the collective norms.

Durkheim points out that while cause and function are different concepts, they are related. The
cause can often give us clues about the function, and sometimes we can start studying the
function first and later figure out the cause. He used the example of punishment to explain this:
crime causes harm to society's collective values, and punishment helps to restore and maintain
these values.

3. The Method for Explaining Social Facts

Durkheim emphasizes that because social facts are collective (involving groups, not just
individuals), the explanations should also have a social focus. He draws a clear line between
individual psychology and society. Social facts must be explained through social conditions, not
just through individual behaviors or psychological states. For example, if we want to understand
why crime happens, we should look at social factors (like inequality) rather than focusing only
on the criminal's psychology.
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Durkheim also emphasizes the comparative method. Since sociologists cannot conduct
controlled experiments like scientists in a lab, they rely on comparing different social facts in
different societies. By studying how two social facts (like crime and punishment) appear together
or separately in different societies, we can see if one causes the other. This is called
concomitant variation — when two things vary together in a regular pattern, it suggests a
relationship between them.

4. Concomitant Variation and Its Importance

Durkheim explains that concomitant variation is an important method in sociology. For example,
if two phenomena (like the amount of punishment and the rate of crime) always change together
in many different societies, we can infer that one affects the other. However, this does not mean
that every single case will show the same pattern — sometimes external factors may interfere.
But as long as there is a general pattern, we can trust the relationship.

This method can be used at different levels:

Within a single society.

Among societies of the same type (e.g., all industrial societies).

Across different types of societies (e.g., comparing industrial and pre-industrial societies).

5. Comparing Social Facts Over Time

To truly understand complex social institutions (like family, marriage, or property), Durkheim
suggests studying their development over time. We must not just look at how these institutions
function today but trace their origins and evolution in earlier societies. By comparing the different
forms of these institutions across various societies, we can understand their development and
the factors that shaped them.

Durkheim believes that comparative sociology is not just a branch of sociology — it is sociology
itself. Sociology aims to move beyond simple description and explain why social facts exist and
how they function across different societies.

Conclusion:

Durkheim’s approach to explaining social facts combines both causal and functional
explanations. He emphasizes the importance of using the comparative method and studying
social facts over time to understand their causes and functions within different societies. By
comparing and analyzing social facts in various contexts, we can reveal the patterns and
relationships that help us understand the structure of society.