Volleyball

Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are separated by a net. Each team
tries to score points by grounding a ball on the other team's court under organized rules.[1] It has
been a part of the official program of the Summer Olympic Games since Tokyo 1964. Beach
volleyball was introduced to the program at the Atlanta 1996 Summer Olympics. The adapted
version of volleyball at the Summer Paralympic Games is sitting volleyball.

The complete set of rules is extensive,[2] but

Volleyball
play essentially proceeds as follows: a player
on one of the teams begins a 'rally' by serving
the ball (tossing or releasing it and then hitting
it with a hand or arm), from behind the back
boundary line of the court, over the net, and
into the receiving team's court.[3] The receiving
team must not let the ball be grounded within
A volleyball game during the 2016 Summer
their court. The team may touch the ball up to Olympics between France and Brazil
three times to return the ball to the other side
Highest FIVB
of the court, but individual players may not
governing body
touch the ball twice consecutively.[3] Typically,
First played 1895 in Holyoke,
the first two touches are used to set up for an Massachusetts, U.S.
attack. An attack is an attempt to direct the
Characteristics
ball back over the net in such a way that the
team receiving the ball is unable to pass the Contact None
ball and continue the rally, thus, losing the
Team members 6
point. The team that wins the rally is awarded
Mixed-sex Single
a point and serves the ball to start the next
rally. A few of the most common faults Type Team sport, Net
sport
include:
Equipment Volleyball
causing the ball to touch the ground or floor
outside the opponents' court or without first Glossary Glossary of volleyball

passing over the net; Presence

catching and throwing the ball; Country or region Worldwide

double hit: two consecutive contacts with Olympic 1964

the ball made by the same player;

four consecutive contacts with the ball made by the same team;
 net foul: touching the net during play;

foot fault: the foot crosses over the boundary line when serving or under the net when a front
row player is trying to keep the ball in play.

The ball is usually played with the hands or arms, but players can legally strike or push (short
contact) the ball with any part of the body.[4]

A number of consistent techniques have evolved in volleyball, including spiking and blocking
(because those plays are made above the top of the net, the vertical jump is an athletic skill
emphasized in the sport) as well as passing, setting, and specialized player positions. Offensive
and defensive structures are also key plays.[5]

History

Origins

William G. Morgan in c. 1915

William G. Morgan invented the sport in 1895 while he was the YMCA physical education director
in Holyoke, Massachusetts.[6] Because he originally derived the game from badminton, he initially
named the sport mintonette.[7] He was a one-time student of basketball inventor James Naismith
and invented the game for his clients at the YMCA, most of whom were middle-aged
businessmen for whom the physical demands of basketball were too great.[8]

The first rules, written down by Morgan, called for a net 6 ft 6 in (1.98 m) high, a 25 ft × 50 ft
(7.6 m × 15.2 m) court, and any number of players. A match was composed of nine innings with
three serves for each team in each inning, and no limit to the number of ball contacts for each
team before sending the ball to the opponents' court. In case of a serving error, a second try was
allowed. Hitting the ball into the net was considered a foul (with loss of the point or a side-out)—
except in the case of the first-try serve.[9]

After an observer, Alfred Halstead, noticed the volleying nature of the game at its first exhibition
match in 1896, played at the International YMCA Training School (now called Springfield College),
the game quickly became known as volleyball (it was originally spelled as two words: "volley
ball "). Volleyball rules were slightly modified by the International YMCA Training School and the
game spread around the country to various YMCAs.[9][10]

In the early 1900s Spalding, through its publishing company American Sports Publishing
Company, produced books with complete instruction and rules for the sport.[11]

Refinements and later developments

Japanese American women playing

volleyball at the Manzanar internment
camp during World War II in c. 1943

A nudist/naturist volleyball game at

the Sunny Trails Club during the 1958
Canadian Sunbathing Association
(CSA) convention in British Columbia,
Canada

The first official ball used in volleyball is disputed; some sources say Spalding created the first
official ball in 1896, while others claim it was created in 1900.[12][13][14] The rules evolved over
time: in 1916, in the Philippines, the skill and power of the set and spike had been introduced, and
four years later a "three hits" rule and a rule against hitting from the back row were established.
In 1917, the game was changed from requiring 21 points to win to a smaller 15 points to win. In
1919, about 16,000 volleyballs were distributed by the American Expeditionary Forces to their
troops and allies, which sparked the growth of volleyball in new countries.[12]

Like basketball, volleyball spread quickly due to its simplicity and promotion by the YMCA and
YWCA.[8] The first country outside the United States to adopt volleyball was Canada in 1900.[12]
During and after World War I, the presence of YMCA instructors in American forces led to the
spread of volleyball in Europe, where clubs were established in France as well as several Soviet
nations.[8] An international federation, the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB), was
founded in 1947, and the first World Championships were held in 1949 for men and 1952 for
women.[15] The sport is now popular in Brazil, in Europe, where especially Italy, the Netherlands,
and Eastern Europe have been major forces since the late 1980s, in Russia, in other countries,
including China and the rest of Asia, and in the United States.[10][9][15]

Beach volleyball, a variation of the game played on sand and with only two players per team,
became a FIVB-endorsed variation in 1987 and was added to the Olympic program at the 1996
Summer Olympics.[12][15] Volleyball is also a sport at the Paralympics managed by World
ParaVolley.[16]

Nudists were early adopters of the game with regular organized play in clubs as early as the late
1920s.[17][18] By the 1960s, a volleyball court had become standard in almost all nudist/naturist
clubs.[19] Recently a debate has arisen within the sport regarding the inclusion of transgender
players. With transgender athletes including Tiffany Abreu joining professional volleyball teams
alongside other non-transgender teammates, many professionals, sports analysts, and fans of
volleyball either express concerns about the legitimacy and fairness of having transgender
players on a team or convey support for the transgender players.[20]

Volleyball in the Olympics

Volleyball has been part of the Summer Olympics program for both men and women consistently
since 1964.
Rules of the game

A volleyball court

Rotation pattern

Court dimensions

A volleyball court is 9 m × 18 m (29.5 ft × 59.1 ft), divided into equal square halves by a net with a
width of one meter (39.4 in).[21] The top of the net is 2.43 m (7 ft 1111⁄16 in) above the center of
the court for men's competition, and 2.24 m (7 ft 43⁄16 in) for women's competition, varied for
veterans and junior competitions.[3]
The minimum height clearance for indoor volleyball courts is 7 m (23.0 ft), although a clearance
of 8 m (26.2 ft) is recommended.[21]

A line 3 m (9.8 ft) from and parallel to the net is considered the "attack line". This "3 meter" (or
"10-foot") line divides the court into "back row" and "front row" areas and the back court and front
court.[21] These are in turn divided into 3 areas each: these are numbered as follows, starting
from area "1", which is the position of the serving player:

After a team gains the serve (also known as siding out), its members must rotate in a clockwise
direction, with the player previously in area "2" moving to area "1" and so on, with the player from
area "1" moving to area "6".[3] Each player rotates only one time after the team gains possession
of the service; the next time each player rotates will be after the other team wins possession of
the ball and loses the point.[21]

The team courts are surrounded by an area called the free zone which is a minimum of 3 meters
wide and which the players may enter and play within after the service of the ball.[22] All lines
denoting the boundaries of the team court and the attack zone are drawn or painted within the
dimensions of the area and are therefore a part of the court or zone. If a ball comes in contact
with the line, the ball is considered to be "in". An antenna is placed on each side of the net
perpendicular to the sideline and is a vertical extension of the side boundary of the court. A ball
passing over the net must pass completely between the antennae (or their theoretical extensions
to the ceiling) without contacting them.[3]

The ball

FIVB regulations state that the ball must be spherical, made of leather or synthetic leather, have a
circumference of 65–67 cm (26–26 in), a weight of 260–280 g (9.2–9.9 oz) and an interior air
pressure of 0.30–0.325 kg/cm2 (4.26 to 4.61 psi; 294.3 to 318.82 mbar or hPa).[23] Other
governing bodies have similar regulations.
Gameplay

Finnish children playing volleyball in a

rural area (1950s)

White is on the attack while red

attempts to block.

Buddhist monks play volleyball in the

Himalayan state of Sikkim in India

Each team consists of six players.[21] To get play started, a team is chosen to serve by coin toss.
A player from the serving team throws the ball into the air and attempts to hit the ball so it
passes over the net on a course such that it will land in the opposing team's court (the serve).[21]
The opposing team must use a combination of no more than three contacts with the volleyball to
return the ball to the opponent's side of the net.[21] These contacts usually consist first of the
bump or pass so that the ball's trajectory is aimed towards the player designated as the setter;
second of the set (usually an over-hand pass using wrists to push finger-tips at the ball) by the
setter so that the ball's trajectory is aimed towards a spot where one of the players designated
as an attacker can hit it, and third by the attacker who spikes (jumping, raising one arm above the
head and hitting the ball so it will move quickly down to the ground on the opponent's court) to
return the ball over the net.[3] The team with possession of the ball that is trying to attack the ball
as described is said to be on offence.

The team on defence attempts to prevent the attacker from directing the ball into their court:
players at the net jump and reach above the top (and if possible, across the plane) of the net to
block the attacked ball.[3] If the ball is hit around, above, or through the block, the defensive
players arranged in the rest of the court attempt to control the ball with a dig (usually a fore-arm
pass of a hard-driven ball). After a successful dig, the team transitions to offence.

The game continues in this manner, rallying back and forth until the ball touches the court within
the boundaries or until an error is made.[21] The most frequent errors that are made are either to
fail to return the ball over the net within the allowed three touches, or to cause the ball to land
outside the court.[21] A ball is "in" if any part of it touches the inside of a team's court or a sideline
or end-line, and a strong spike may compress the ball enough when it lands that a ball which at
first appears to be going out may instead be in. Players may travel well outside the court to play a
ball that has gone over a sideline or end-line in the air. A standard competitive volleyball match is
played in a best-of-five sets format and typically goes on for about 90 minutes.[24]

Other common errors include a player touching the ball twice in succession, a player catching the
ball, a player touching the net while attempting to play the ball, or a player penetrating under the
net into the opponent's court. There are a large number of other errors specified in the rules,
although most of them are infrequent occurrences. These errors include back-row or libero
players spiking the ball or blocking (back-row players may spike the ball if they jump from behind
the attack line), players not being in the correct position when the ball is served, attacking the
serve in the front court and above the height of the net, using another player as a source of
support to reach the ball, stepping over the back boundary line when serving, taking more than 8
seconds to serve,[25] or playing the ball when it is above the opponent's court.

Scoring

A scorer's table shown just before a

volleyball game

A point is scored when the ball contacts the floor within the court boundaries or when an error is
made: when the ball strikes one team's side of the court, the other team gains a point; and when
an error is made, the team that did not make the error is awarded a point, in either case paying no
regard to whether they served the ball or not. If any part of the ball hits the line, the ball is
counted as in the court. The team that won the point serves for the next point. If the team which
won the point served in the previous point, the same player serves again. If the team that won the
point did not serve the previous point, the players of the team acquiring the serve rotate their
position on the court in a clockwise manner. The game continues, with the first team to score 25
points by a two-point margin awarded the set. Matches are best-of-five sets and the fifth set, if
necessary, is usually played to 15 points. (Scoring differs between leagues, tournaments, and
levels; high schools sometimes play best-of-three to 25; in the NCAA matches are played best-of-
five to 25 as of the 2008 season.)[26]

Before 1999, points could be scored only when a team had the serve (side-out scoring) and all
sets went up to only 15 points. The FIVB changed the rules in 1999 (with the changes being
compulsory in 2000) to use the current scoring system (formerly known as rally point system),
primarily to make the length of the match more predictable and to make the game more
spectator- and television-friendly. The final year of side-out scoring at the NCAA Division I
Women's Volleyball Championship was 2000. Rally point scoring debuted in 2001,[27] and games
were played to 30 points through 2007. For the 2008 season, games were renamed "sets" and
reduced to 25 points to win. Most high schools in the U.S. changed to rally scoring in
2003,[28][29][30] and several states implemented it the previous year on an experimental basis.[31]

Libero

The libero player was introduced internationally in 1998,[32] and made its debut for NCAA
competition in 2002.[33] The libero is a player specialized in defensive skills: the libero must wear
a contrasting jersey color from their teammates and cannot block or attack the ball when it is
entirely above net height. When the ball is not in play, the libero can replace any back-row player,
without prior notice to the officials. This replacement does not count against the substitution
limit each team is allowed per set, although the libero may be replaced only by the player whom
he or she replaced. Most U.S. high schools added the libero position from 2003 to 2005.[29][34]

The modern-day libero often takes on the role of a second setter. When the setter digs the ball,
the libero is typically responsible for the second ball and sets to the front row attacker. The libero
may function as a setter only under certain restrictions. To make an overhand set, the libero must
be standing behind (and not stepping on) the 3-meter line; otherwise, the ball cannot be attacked
above the net in front of the 3-meter line. An underhand pass is allowed from any part of the
court. The libero is, generally, the most skilled defensive player on the team. There is also a libero
tracking sheet, where the referees or officiating team must keep track of whom the libero subs in
and out for.

Under FIVB rules, a libero is not allowed to serve. By contrast, a libero can serve in NCAA
volleyball, but only in a specific rotation. That is, the libero can only serve for one person, not for
all of the people for whom he or she goes in. That rule change was implemented in 2004 and
applied to high school and junior high play soon after.
Under FIVB rules, each team can designate two liberos at the beginning of play, only one of
whom can be on the court at any time, and each libero can serve in one specific rotation. This
rule was implemented in NCAA women's volleyball, effective with the fall 2024 season.[35]

Recent rule changes

Other rule changes enacted in 2000 include allowing serves in which the ball touches the net, as
long as it goes over the net into the opponents' court. Also, the service area was expanded to
allow players to serve from anywhere behind the end line but still within the theoretical extension
of the sidelines. Other changes were made to lighten up calls on faults for carries and double-
touches, such as allowing multiple contacts by a single player ("double-hits") on a team's first
contact provided that they are a part of a single play on the ball.[36]

In 2008, the NCAA changed the minimum number of points needed to win any of the first four
sets from 30 to 25 for women's volleyball (men's volleyball remained at 30 for another three
years, switching to 25 in 2011). If a fifth (deciding) set is reached, the minimum required score
remains at 15. In addition, the word "game" is now referred to as "set".[26]

The Official Volleyball Rules are prepared and updated every few years by the FIVB's Rules of the
Game and Refereeing Commission.[37] The latest edition is usually available on the FIVB's
website.[2]

Skills

Competitive teams master six basic skills: serve, pass, set, attack, block and dig.[3] Each of the
skills consitsts of a number of specific techniques which have been introduced over the years
and are now considered standard practice in high-level volleyball.
Serve

A player making a jump serve

A float serve

A player stands behind the inline and serves the ball in an attempt to drive it into the opponent's
court. The main objective is to make it land inside the court; it is also desirable to set the ball's
direction, speed and acceleration so that it becomes difficult for the receiver to handle it
properly.[3] A serve is called an "ace" when the ball either lands directly onto the opponent's court
or the first opponent to touch the ball is unable to volley it (hit it upwards enough for a teammate
to continue).

In contemporary volleyball, many types of serves are employed:

Underhand: a serve in which the player strikes the ball below the waist instead of tossing it up
and striking it with an overhand throwing motion. Underhand serves are considered very easy
to receive and are rarely employed in high-level competitions.[38]

Sky ball serve: a specific type of underhand serve occasionally used in beach volleyball, where
the ball is hit so high it comes down almost in a straight line. This serve was invented and
employed almost exclusively by the Brazilian team in the early 1980s and is now considered
outdated. During the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro, however, the sky ball serve was
extensively played by Italian beach volleyball player Adrian Carambula. In Brazil, this serve is
called Jornada nas Estrelas (Star Trek).[39]
 Topspin: an overhand serve where the player tosses the ball high and hits it with a wrist snap,
giving it topspin which causes it to drop faster than it would otherwise and helps maintain a
straight flight path. Topspin serves are generally hit hard and aimed at a specific returner or
part of the court. Standing topspin serves are rarely used above the high school level of
play.[38]

Float: an overhand serve where the ball is hit with no spin so that its path becomes
unpredictable, akin to a knuckleball in baseball.[38]

Jump serve: an overhand serve where the ball is first tossed high in the air, then the player
makes a timed approach and jumps to make contact with the ball, hitting it with much pace
and topspin. This is the most popular serve among college and professional teams.[38]

Jump float: an overhand serve where the ball is tossed high enough that the player may jump
before hitting it similarly to a standing float serve. The ball is tossed lower than a topspin jump
serve, but contact is still made while in the air. This serve is becoming more popular among
college and professional players because it has a certain unpredictability in its flight
pattern.[38]

Pass

A player making a forearm pass or

bump

Also called reception, the pass is the attempt by a team to properly handle the opponent's serve
or any form of attack. Proper handling includes not only preventing the ball from touching the
court but also making it reach the position where the setter is standing quickly and precisely.[3]

The skill of passing involves fundamentally two specific techniques: underarm pass, or bump,
where the ball touches the inside part of the joined forearms or platform, at waistline; and
overhand pass, where it is handled with the fingertips, like a set, above the head.[3] Either are
acceptable in professional and beach volleyball; however, there are much tighter regulations on
the overhand pass in beach volleyball. When a player passes a ball to their setter, it is ideal that
the ball does not have a lot of spin to make it easier for the setter.
Set

Jump set

The set is usually the second contact that a team makes with the ball.[3] The main goal of setting
is to put the ball in the air in such a way that it can be driven by an attack into the opponent's
court.[3] The setter coordinates the offensive movements of a team, and is the player who
ultimately decides which player will attack the ball.

As with passing, one may distinguish between an overhand and a bump set. Since the former
allows for more control over the speed and direction of the ball, the bump is used only when the
ball is so low it cannot be properly handled with fingertips, or in beach volleyball where rules
regulating overhand setting are more stringent. In the case of a set, one also speaks of a front or
back set, meaning whether the ball is passed in the direction the setter is facing or behind the
setter. There is also a jump set that is used when the ball is too close to the net. In this case, the
setter usually jumps off their right foot straight up to avoid going into the net. The setter usually
stands about ⅔ of the way from the left to the right of the net and faces the left (the larger
portion of net that the setter can see).

Sometimes a setter refrains from raising the ball for a teammate to perform an attack and tries
to play it directly onto the opponent's court. This movement is called a "dump".[40] This can only
be performed when the setter is in the front row, otherwise it constitutes an illegal back court
attack. The most common dumps are to 'throw' the ball behind the setter or in front of the setter
to zones 2 and 4. More experienced setters toss the ball into the deep corners or spike the ball
on the second hit.

As with a set or an overhand pass, the setter/passer must be careful to touch the ball with both
hands at the same time.[3] If one hand is noticeably late to touch the ball this could result in a
less effective set, as well as the referee calling a 'double hit' and giving the point to the opposing
team.

Attack

A Spanish player, #18 in a red outfit is

shown about to spike towards the
Portuguese field, whose players are
performing a block

The attack, also known as the spike, is usually the third contact a team makes with the ball.[3] The
object of attacking is to handle the ball so that it lands on the opponent's court and cannot be
defended.[3] A player makes a series of steps (the "approach"), jumps, and swings at the ball.

Ideally, the contact with the ball is made at the apex of the hitter's jump. At the moment of
contact, the hitter's arm is fully extended above their head and slightly forward, making the
highest possible contact while maintaining the ability to deliver a powerful hit. The hitter uses
arm swing, wrist snap, and a rapid forward contraction of the entire body to drive the ball.[3] A
'bounce' is a slang term for a very hard/loud spike that follows an almost straight trajectory
steeply downward into the opponent's court and bounces very high into the air. A "kill" is the
slang term for an attack that is not returned by the other team thus resulting in a point.

Contemporary volleyball comprises a number of attacking techniques:[41]

Backcourt (or back row): an attack performed by a back-row player. The player must jump from
behind the 3-meter line before making contact with the ball, but may land in front of the 3-
meter line. A Pipe Attack is when the center player in the back row attacks the ball.

Line and Cross-court Shot: refers to whether the ball flies in a straight trajectory parallel to the
sidelines, or crosses through the court in an angle. A cross-court shot with a very pronounced
angle, resulting in the ball landing near the 3-meter line, is called a cut shot.

Dip/Dink/Tip/Cheat/Dump: the player does not try to make a hit, but touches the ball lightly, so
that it lands on an area of the opponent's court that is not being covered by the defence.

Tool/Wipe/Block-abuse: the player does not try to make a hard spike, but hits the ball so that it
touches the opponent's block and then bounces off-court.
 Off-speed hit: the player does not hit the ball hard, reducing its speed and thus confusing the
opponent's defence.

Quick hit/"One": an attack (usually by the middle blocker) where the approach and jump begin
before the setter contacts the ball. The set (called a "quick set") is placed only slightly above
the net and the ball is struck by the hitter almost immediately after leaving the setter's hands.
Quick attacks are often effective because they isolate the middle blocker to be the only blocker
on the hit.

Slide: a variation of the quick hit that uses a low backset. The middle hitter steps around the
setter and hits from behind him or her.

Double quick hit/"Stack"/"Tandem": a variation of quick hit where two hitters, one in front and
one behind the setter or both in front of the setter, jump to perform a quick hit at the same
time. It can be used to deceive opposite blockers and free a fourth hitter attacking from back-
court, maybe without block at all.

Block

Three players performing a block, also

known as a triple block

Blocking refers to the actions taken by players standing at the net to stop or alter an opponent's
attack.[3] A block which is aimed at completely stopping an attack, thus making the ball remain in
the opponent's court, is called an offensive block. A well-executed offensive block is performed
by jumping and reaching to penetrate with one's arms and hands over the net and into the
opponent's area.[3] It requires anticipating the direction the ball will go once the attack takes
place.[3] It may also require calculating the best footwork to executing the "perfect" block.

The jump should be timed so as to intercept the ball's trajectory prior to it crossing over the plane
of the net. Palms are held deflected downward roughly 45–60 degrees toward the interior of the
opponents' court. A "roof" is a spectacular offensive block that redirects the power and speed of
the attack straight down to the attacker's floor as if the attacker hit the ball into the underside of
a peaked house roof. By contrast, it is called a defensive, or "soft" block if the goal is to control
and deflect the hard-driven ball up so that it slows down and becomes easier to defend. A well-
executed soft-block is performed by jumping and placing one's hands above the net with no
penetration into the opponent's court and with the palms up and fingers pointing backwards.
Blocking is also classified according to the number of players involved. Thus, there are single (or
solo), double, and triple blocks.[3]

Successful blocking does not always result in a "roof" and many times does not even touch the
ball. While it is obvious that a block was a success when the attacker is roofed, a block that
consistently forces the attacker away from their 'power' or preferred attack into a more easily
controlled shot by the defence is also a highly successful block. At the same time, the block
position influences the positions where other defenders place themselves while opponent hitters
are spiking.

Dig

A volleyball player preparing for a dig

Digging is the ability to prevent the ball from touching one's court after a spike or attack,
particularly a ball that is nearly touching the ground.[3] In many aspects, this skill is similar to
passing, or bumping: overhand dig and bump are also used to distinguish between defensive
actions taken with fingertips or with joined arms.[3] It varies from passing, however, in that it is a
much more reflex-based skill, especially at the higher levels. It is especially important while
digging for players to stay on their toes; several players choose to employ a split step to make
sure they are ready to move in any direction.

Some specific techniques are more common in digging than in passing. A player may sometimes
perform a "dive", i.e., throw their body in the air with a forward movement in an attempt to save
the ball, and land on their chest. When the player also slides their hand under a ball which is
almost touching the court it is called a "pancake". The pancake is frequently used in indoor
volleyball, but rarely if ever in beach volleyball because the uneven and yielding nature of the
sand court limits the chances that the ball will make good, clean contact with the hand. When
used correctly, it is one of the more spectacular defensive volleyball plays.

Sometimes a player may also be forced to drop their body quickly to the floor to save the ball. In
this situation, the player makes use of a specific rolling technique to minimize the chances of
injuries.
Team play

The U.S. women's team huddling in

2007

Volleyball is essentially a game of transition from one of the above skills to the next, with
choreographed team movement between plays on the ball. The team's movements are
determined by the teams chosen serve receive system, offensive system, coverage system, and
defensive system.

The serve-receive system is the formation used by the receiving team to attempt to pass the ball
to the designated setter. Systems can consist of 5 receivers, 4 receivers, 3 receivers, and in some
cases 2 receivers. The most popular formation at higher levels is a 3 receiver formation
consisting of two left sides and a libero receiving every rotation. This allows middles and right
sides to become more specialized at hitting and blocking. Offensive systems are the formations
used by the offence to attempt to ground the ball into the opposing court (or otherwise score
points). Formations often include designated player positions with skill specialization (see Player
specialization, below). Popular formations include the 4–2, 6–2, and 5-1 systems (see
Formations, below). There are also several different attacking schemes teams can use to keep
the opposing defence off balance.

Coverage systems are the formations used by the offence to protect their court in the case of a
blocked attack. Executed by the 5 offensive players not directly attacking the ball, players move
to assigned positions around the attacker to dig up any ball that deflects off the block back into
their own court. Popular formations include the 2-3 system and the 1-2-2 system. In lieu of a
system, some teams just use a random coverage with the players nearest the hitter.

Defensive systems are the formations used by the defence to protect against the ball being
grounded into their court by the opposing team. The system will outline which players are
responsible for which areas of the court depending on where the opposing team is attacking
from. Popular systems include the 6-Up, 6-Back-Deep, and 6-Back-Slide defence. There are also
several different blocking schemes teams can employ to disrupt the opposing teams' offence.
When one player is ready to serve, some teams will line up their other five players in a screen to
obscure the view of the receiving team. This action is only illegal if the server makes use of the
screen, so the call is made at the referee's discretion as to the impact the screen made on the
receiving team's ability to pass the ball. The most common style of screening involves a W
formation designed to take up as much horizontal space as possible.

Strategy

An international match between Italy

and Russia in 2005; the Russian
player on the left has just served with
three men from his team next to the
net moving to their assigned block
positions from the starting ones. Two
others, in the back-row positions, are
preparing for defense. Italy, on the
right, has three men in a line, each
preparing to pass if the ball reaches
him. The setter is waiting for his pass
while the middle hitter (#10) will jump
for a quick hit if the pass is good
enough. Alessandro Fei (#14) has no
passing duties and is preparing for a
back-row hit on the right side of the
field.

Player specialization

There are five positions filled on every volleyball team at the elite level: setter, outside hitter (left-
side hitter), middle hitter (middle blocker), opposite hitter (right-side hitter) and libero / defensive
specialist. Each of the positions plays a specific, key role in winning a volleyball match.

Setters have the task for orchestrating the offence of the team. They aim for the second touch
and their main responsibility is to place the ball in the air where the attackers can place the ball
into the opponents' court for a point. They have to be able to operate with the hitters, manage
the tempo of their side of the court and choose the right attackers to set. Setters need to have
a swift and skillful appraisal and tactical accuracy and must be quick at moving around the
court. At elite level, setters used to usually be the shortest players of a team (before liberos
were introduced), not being typically required to perform jump hits, but that would imply need
for short-term replacement by taller bench players when critical points required more effective
blocks; in the 1990s taller setters (e.g. Fabio Vullo, Peter Blangé) began being deployed, in
order to improve blocks.

Liberos are defensive players who are responsible for receiving the attack or serve. They are
usually the players on the court with the quickest reaction time and best passing skills. Libero
means 'free' in Italian—they receive this name as they have the ability to substitute for any
other player on the court during each play (usually the middle blocker). Liberos are not
permitted to block or perform attacks, meaning they never play at the net, which allows shorter
players with strong passing and defensive skills to excel in the position and play an important
role in the team's success. A player designated as a libero for a match may not play other roles
during that match. Liberos wear a different colour jersey than their teammates.[42]

Middle hitters, or middle blockers, are players that can perform very fast attacks that usually
take place near the setter. They are specialized in blocking since they must attempt to stop
equally fast plays from their opponents and then quickly set up a double block at the sides of
the court. In non-beginners play, every team will have two middle hitters. At elite levels, middle
hitters are usually the tallest players, whose limited agility is countered by their height enabling
more effective blocks.

Outside hitters, or left-side hitters, attack from near the left antenna. The outside hitter is
usually the most consistent hitter on the team and gets the most sets. Inaccurate first passes
usually result in a set to the outside hitter rather than middle or opposite. Since most sets to
the outside are high, the outside hitter may take a longer approach, always starting from
outside the court sideline. In non-beginners play, there are again two outside hitters on every
team in every match. At elite level, outside hitters are slightly shorter than middle hitters and
opposite hitters, but have the best defensive skills, therefore always re-placing to the middle
while in the back row.

Opposite hitters, or right-side hitters, carry the defensive workload for a volleyball team in the
front row. Their primary responsibilities are to put up a well-formed block against the
opponents' Outside hitters and serve as a backup setter. Sets to the opposite usually go to the
right side of the antennae. Therefore, they are usually the most technical hitters since balls
lifted to the right side are quicker and more difficult to handle (the setters having to place the
ball while slightly off-set to the right, and with their back to the attacker), and also having to
jump from the back row when the setter is on the front row. At elite level, until the 1990s
several opposite hitters used to be able to also play as middle hitters (e.g. Andrea Zorzi,
Andrea Giani), before high specialization curtailed this flexibility in the role.[43]
At some levels where substitutions are unlimited, teams will make use of a defensive specialist
in place of or in addition to a libero. This position does not have unique rules like the libero
position, instead, these players are used to substitute out a poor back row defender using regular
substitution rules. A defensive specialist is often used if you have a particularly poor back court
defender in right side or left side, but your team is already using a libero to take out your middles.
Most often, the situation involves a team using a right-side player with a big block who must be
subbed out in the back row because they are not able to effectively play backcourt defence.
Similarly, teams might use a serving specialist to sub out a poor server.

Formations

The three standard volleyball formations are known as "4–2", "6–2" and "5–1", which refers to the
number of hitters and setters respectively. 4–2 is a basic formation used only in beginners' play,
while 5–1 is by far the most common formation in high-level play.

4–2

The 4–2 formation has four hitters and two setters. The setters usually set from the middle front
or right front position. The team will, therefore, have two front-row attackers at all times. In the
international 4–2, the setters set from the right front position. The international 4–2 translates
more easily into other forms of offence. The setters line up opposite each other in the rotation.
The typical lineup has two outside hitters. By aligning like positions opposite themselves in the
rotation, there will always be one of each position in the front and back rows. After service, the
players in the front row move into their assigned positions, so that the setter is always in the
middle front. Alternatively, the setter moves into the right front and has both a middle and an
outside attacker; the disadvantage here lies in the lack of an offside hitter, allowing one of the
other team's blockers to "cheat in" on a middle block.

The clear disadvantage with this offensive formation is that there are only two attackers, leaving
a team with fewer offensive weapons.

Another aspect is to see the setter as an attacking force, albeit a weakened force, because when
the setter is in the frontcourt they are able to 'tip' or 'dump', so when the ball is close to the net on
the second touch, the setter may opt to hit the ball over with one hand. This means that the
blocker who would otherwise not have to block the setter is engaged and may allow one of the
hitters to have an easier attack.

6–2

In the 6–2 formation, a player always comes forward from the back row to set. The three front
row players are all in attacking positions. As a result all six players act as hitters at one time or
another, while two can act as setters. So the 6–2 formation is now a 4–2 system, but the back-
row setter penetrates to set. The 6–2 lineup thus requires two setters, who line up opposite to
each other in the rotation. In addition to the setters, a typical lineup will have two middle hitters
and two outside hitters. By aligning like positions opposite themselves in the rotation, there will
always be one of each position in the front and back rows. After service, the players in the front
row move into their assigned positions.

The advantage of the 6–2 is that there are always three front-row hitters available, maximizing
the offensive possibilities. However, not only does the 6–2 require a team to possess two people
capable of performing the highly specialized role of setter, it also requires both of those players
to be effective offensive hitters when not in the setter position. At the international level, only the
Cuban National Women's Team employs this kind of formation. It is also used by NCAA teams in
Division III men's play and women's play in all divisions, partially due to the variant rules used
which allow more substitutions per set than the 6 allowed in the standard rules—12 in matches
involving two Division III men's teams[44] and 15 for all women's play.[45]

5–1

The 5–1 formation has only one player who assumes setting responsibilities regardless of their
position in the rotation. The team will, therefore, have three front-row attackers when the setter is
in the back row and only two when the setter is in the front row, for a total of five possible
attackers.

The player opposite the setter in a 5–1 rotation is called the opposite hitter. In general, opposite
hitters do not pass; they stand behind their teammates when the opponent is serving. The
opposite hitter may be used as a third attack option (back-row attack) when the setter is in the
front row: this is the normal option used to increase the attack capabilities of modern volleyball
teams. Normally the opposite hitter is the most technically skilled hitter of the team. Back-row
attacks generally come from the back-right position, known as zone 1, but are increasingly
performed from back-centre in high-level play.

The big advantage of the system is that the setter always has 3 hitters with which to vary sets. If
the setter performs well, the opponent's middle blocker may not have enough time to block with
the outside blocker, increasing the chance for the attacking team to make a point.

There is another advantage, the same as that of a 4–2 formation: as a front-row player the setter
is allowed to jump and "dump" the ball onto the opponent's side. Thus the setter can confuse the
opponent's blocking players; they have the option to jump and dump or set to one of the hitters.
A good setter knows and they are able to jump to dump or to set for a quick hit as well as when
setting outside, thus they are able to confuse the opponent.
The 5–1 offence is a mix of 6–2 and 4–2: when the setter is in the front row, the offense looks
like a 4–2; when the setter is in the back row, the offense looks like a 6–2.

Media

Movies

Side Out (1990): A law student goes to California and ends up playing professional
volleyball.[46]

Air Bud: Spikes Back (2003): A sequel in the Air Bud series that shows the titular golden
retriever playing volleyball.[47]

All You've Got (2006); A TV movie starring hip hop artist Ciara.[48]

The Miracle Season (2018): A team comes together after the death of their star player in hopes
of winning the state championship.[49]

Television

Attacker You! (1984): A Japanese anime about a junior high schoolgirl playing volleyball after
moving to Tokyo from the countryside.

Haikyu!! (2014): A Japanese anime about a high school boys volleyball team striving to be the
best in Japan.

Harukana Receive (2018): A Japanese anime about teen girls playing beach volleyball and
having a match with other girls.

2.43: Seiin High School Boys Volleyball Team (2021): A Japanese anime about a high school
boys volleyball team's journey to victory.

Variations and related games

Beach volleyball at the Hietaniemi

Beach in Helsinki, Finland

There are many variations on the basic rules of volleyball. By far the most popular of these is
beach volleyball, which is played on sand with two people per team and rivals the main sport in
popularity.

Some games related to volleyball include:

Crossnet: a four-way volleyball game, combining volleyball and foursquare.

9-man: A variant invented by Chinese immigrants to the United States in the 1930s. 9-man is
still played in Asian countries and North America, being recognized for its historic and cultural
significance. In 2014, a documentary was produced about the sport, and a YouTube
documentary was made in 2017.

Beachball volleyball: A game of indoor volleyball played with a beach ball instead of a
volleyball.

Biribol: an aquatic variant, played in shallow swimming pools. The name comes from the
Brazilian city where it was invented, Birigui. It is similar to water volleyball.

Ecua-volley: A variant invented in Ecuador, with some significant variants, such as number of
players, and a heavier ball.

Footvolley: A sport from Brazil in which the hands and arms are not used, but it is otherwise
similar to beach volleyball.

Hooverball: Popularized by President Herbert Hoover, it is played with a volleyball net and a
medicine ball; it is scored like tennis, but the ball is caught and then thrown back. The weight
of the medicine ball can make the sport physically demanding for players; annual
championship tournaments are held in West Branch, Iowa.

Newcomb ball (sometimes spelled "Nuke 'Em"): In this game, the ball is caught and thrown
instead of hit; it rivaled volleyball in popularity until the 1920s.
Prisoner Ball: Also played with volleyball court and a volleyball, prisoner ball is a variation
of Newcomb ball where players are "taken prisoner" or released from "prison" instead of
scoring points. This version is usually played by young children.[50]

Sepak Takraw: Played in Southeast Asia using a rattan ball and allowing only players' feet,
knees, chests, and heads to touch the ball.

Snow volleyball: a variant of beach volleyball that is played on snow. The Fédération
Internationale de Volleyball has announced its plans to make snow volleyball part of the future
Winter Olympic Games programme.[51][52][53]

Throwball: became popular with female players at the YMCA College of Physical Education in
Chennai (India) in the 1940s.

Towel volleyball: towel volleyball is a popular form of outdoor entertainment. The game takes
place in a volleyball court, and players work in pairs, holding towels in their hands and
 attempting to throw the ball into the opponent's field. This version can also be played with
blankets held by four people. There are several variations.[54]

Volley squash, a form of volleyball played within a squash court or similar sized enclosed
space.

Wallyball: A variation of volleyball played in a racquetball court with a rubber ball.

See also

Volleyball portal

Lists of volleyball players – lists of notable players, and fictional players

List of volleyball video games

Volleyball Hall of Fame

Volleyball jargon

Volleyball injuries

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External links

Fédération Internationale de Volleyball – FIVB ([Link]

USA Volleyball ([Link]

AVP ([Link]

American Volleyball Coaches Association ([Link]