1. What are the three types of neurons based on structure?

A: Unipolar Neurons: Single process; common in sensory neurons. Bipolar Neurons:

One axon, one dendrite; found in retina and olfactory epithelium. Multipolar Neurons:
One axon, multiple dendrites; common in the CNS (e.g., motor neurons).
2. What is excitability in neurons?
A: The ability to respond to stimuli and generate action potentials.
3. What is conductivity in neurons?
A: The ability to conduct electrical impulses along the axon to transmit signals.
4. How do neurons communicate at synapses?
A: Through synaptic transmission, where neurotransmitters are released and bind to
receptors on the postsynaptic cell.
5. What is neuroplasticity?
A: The ability of neurons to adapt, form new connections, and modify their structure or
function in response to experiences or injuries.
6. What is the refractory period?
A: A short phase after an action potential when neurons cannot be stimulated again,
ensuring unidirectional impulse flow.
7. What is the function of the neuromuscular junction?
A: To transmit signals from a motor neuron to a muscle fiber, causing muscle contraction.
8. What are the main components of the neuromuscular junction?
A: Motor Neuron Terminal: Releases acetylcholine (ACh). Synaptic Cleft: Gap where
ACh diffuses. Motor End Plate: Muscle fiber membrane with ACh receptors.
9. What enzyme terminates the signal at the neuromuscular junction?
A: Acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine.
10. How does muscle contraction start at the neuromuscular junction?
A: Action potential arrives at the motor neuron terminal. Calcium ions enter, causing
acetylcholine release. Acetylcholine binds to receptors on the motor end plate, triggering
muscle fiber depolarization.
11. How does acetylcholine lead to muscle contraction?
A: It causes sodium influx, depolarizing the muscle fiber, leading to calcium release from
the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which triggers actin-myosin interaction.
12. What is the structure of a muscle?
A: Muscle: Covered by epimysium. Fascicles: Bundles of fibers surrounded by
perimysium. Muscle Fibers: Individual cells covered by endomysium. Myofibrils:
Composed of repeating sarcomeres.
13. What is the role of the sarcolemma?
A: The sarcolemma transmits action potentials that initiate muscle contraction.
14. What are the main proteins in sarcomeres?
A: Actin: Thin filaments. Myosin: Thick filaments.
15. What triggers the sliding filament mechanism?
A: Calcium binds to troponin, causing tropomyosin to expose myosin-binding sites on
actin.
16. What is a power stroke in muscle contraction?
A: The myosin head pulls actin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere.
17. What happens during muscle relaxation?
A: Calcium ions are pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and tropomyosin
blocks the myosin-binding sites.
18. What are neurons?
A: Neurons are specialized cells of the nervous system that transmit electrical and
chemical signals.
19. What is the function of dendrites in a neuron?
A: Dendrites receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors.
20. What is the function of the axon in a neuron?
A: The axon conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron's cell body.
21. What is myelin, and what is its function?
A: Myelin is an insulating layer around axons that increases the speed of nerve impulse
conduction.
22. Where is the synaptic cleft located?
A: It is the gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of
another neuron.
23. What is the threshold potential?
A: The minimum membrane potential required to trigger an action potential.
24. What is the role of sodium (Na⁺) and potassium (K⁺) ions in neurons?
A: Sodium influx depolarizes the membrane, while potassium efflux repolarizes it during
action potential.
25. What is the function of neurotransmitters?
A: Neurotransmitters transmit signals across a synapse to another cell.
26. What is the role of calcium ions (Ca²⁺) in the neuromuscular junction?
A: Calcium ions trigger the release of acetylcholine from synaptic vesicles.
27. What happens if acetylcholinesterase is inhibited?
A: Acetylcholine remains active, causing continuous muscle contraction.
28. What are acetylcholine receptors, and where are they located?
A: They are proteins located on the motor end plate that bind to acetylcholine to initiate a
muscle action potential.
29. What is the role of ATP in muscle contraction?
A: ATP provides energy for cross-bridge formation, power stroke, and myosin head
detachment.
30. What is rigor mortis, and why does it occur?
A: Rigor mortis is postmortem muscle stiffness caused by the lack of ATP, preventing
myosin head detachment.
31. How does calcium regulate muscle contraction?
A: Calcium binds to troponin, shifting tropomyosin to expose actin binding sites for
myosin.
32. What are the connective tissue layers in skeletal muscle?
A: Epimysium: Surrounds the entire muscle. Perimysium: Surrounds fascicles.
Endomysium: Surrounds individual muscle fibers.
33. What are T-tubules, and what is their function?
A: T-tubules are invaginations of the sarcolemma that allow action potentials to reach
deep into the muscle fiber.
34. What is the function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum?
A: It stores and releases calcium ions needed for muscle contraction.
35. What changes occur in the sarcomere during contraction?
A: The sarcomere shortens, the I-band and H-zone decrease, and the A-band remains
constant.
36. What happens during cross-bridge cycling?
A: Myosin heads attach to actin, perform power strokes, detach, and reattach as long as
ATP and calcium are available.
37. Why does the muscle relax when nerve impulses stop?
A: Calcium is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and tropomyosin blocks the
binding sites on actin.
38. What happens in myasthenia gravis?
A: Autoimmune attack on acetylcholine receptors reduces neuromuscular transmission,
causing muscle weakness.
39. What is the role of botulinum toxin at the neuromuscular junction?
A: It inhibits acetylcholine release, leading to muscle paralysis.
40. How does tetanus toxin affect muscles?
A: It blocks inhibitory neurotransmitters, causing continuous muscle contraction.
41. What is a cell?
A: A cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all living organisms,
often called the "building block of life."
42. What is the cell membrane made of?
A: The cell membrane is made of a phospholipid bilayer and is selectively permeable,
controlling the entry and exit of substances.
43. What is the function of mitochondria?
A: Mitochondria are known as the "powerhouse of the cell" and produce energy in the
form of ATP.
44. Name the organelle responsible for protein synthesis.
A: Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis.
45. What is the difference between Smooth ER and Rough ER?
A: Smooth ER is involved in lipid synthesis. Rough ER is involved in protein synthesis
and has ribosomes attached to it.
46. What is passive transport?
A: Passive transport is the movement of substances across the cell membrane without
energy expenditure, following the concentration gradient.
47. What is osmosis?
A: Osmosis is the movement of water molecules through a selectively permeable
membrane from a region of high water concentration to low water concentration.
48. Give an example of active transport.
A: The sodium-potassium pump (Na⁺/K⁺ pump) is an example of active transport.
49. What is facilitated diffusion?
A: Facilitated diffusion is the movement of larger or charged molecules through specific
protein channels or carriers in the membrane.
50. What is an action potential?
A: An action potential is a rapid, temporary electrical signal that travels along the
membrane of a neuron or muscle cell.
51. What happens during depolarization?
A: During depolarization, voltage-gated Na⁺ channels open, causing sodium ions to flow
into the cell, making the membrane potential more positive.
52. What is the resting membrane potential of a neuron?
A: The resting membrane potential of a neuron is approximately -70 mV.
53. What is the role of the myelin sheath?
A: The myelin sheath insulates the axon and increases the speed of nerve impulse
conduction through saltatory conduction.
54. What are the main components of blood?
A: Blood consists of plasma, red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and
platelets.
55. What is the function of hemoglobin?
A: Hemoglobin binds oxygen in the lungs and delivers it to tissues, and carries carbon
dioxide back to the lungs for exhalation.
56. What is anemia?
A: Anemia is a condition caused by a low RBC count or hemoglobin level, leading to
reduced oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
57. What is the universal donor blood group?
A: Blood group O is the universal donor as it has no antigens on RBCs.
58. What causes hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)?
A: HDN occurs when an Rh-negative mother carries an Rh-positive fetus, causing her
immune system to produce anti-Rh antibodies.
59. What is the primary function of the respiratory system?
A: The primary function is gas exchange—oxygen is inhaled and transported to tissues,
and carbon dioxide is exhaled as a waste product.
60. What is tidal volume (TV)?
A: Tidal volume is the amount of air inhaled or exhaled during a normal breath,
approximately 500 mL.
61. What is the diaphragm’s role in respiration?
A: The diaphragm contracts during inhalation to increase thoracic cavity volume and
relaxes during exhalation to reduce thoracic cavity volume.
62. What happens during hyperventilation?
A: During hyperventilation, excess carbon dioxide is expelled, causing blood pH to rise
(alkalosis).
63. What are the main parts of a neuron?
A: The main parts are the cell body (soma), dendrites, axon, and synapse.
64. What is the function of dendrites?
A: Dendrites receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors and transmit them
to the cell body.
65. What are Schwann cells?
A: Schwann cells form the myelin sheath around axons in the peripheral nervous system
(PNS).
66. What are Nodes of Ranvier?
A: Nodes of Ranvier are gaps in the myelin sheath where electrical signals are
regenerated, enabling faster conduction of nerve impulses.