Module 4 - Counselling Application
Counselling across human life span; Guidance and counselling in educational setting; career
guidance, counselling adolescents; family counselling; Crisis intervention: suicide, grief and sexual
abuse, special areas in counselling- LGBTQ Group, complexities of different groups
1. Counselling across human life span
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Now, let’s turn to a less controversial psychodynamic theorist, the father of developmental
psychology, Erik Erikson (1902-1994). Erikson was a student of Freud’s and expanded on his theory of
psychosexual development by emphasizing the importance of culture in parenting practices and
motivations and adding three stages of adult development (Erikson, 1950; 1968).
Background
As an art school dropout with an uncertain future, young Erik Erikson met Freud’s daughter, Anna
Freud, while he was tutoring the children of an American couple undergoing psychoanalysis in
Vienna. It was Anna Freud who encouraged Erikson to study psychoanalysis. Erikson received his
diploma from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute in 1933, and as Nazism spread across Europe, he
fled the country and immigrated to the United States that same year. Erikson later proposed a
psychosocial theory of development, suggesting that an individual’s personality develops throughout
the lifespan—a departure from Freud’s view that personality is fixed in early life. In his theory,
Erikson emphasized the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality
development, in contrast to Freud’s emphasis on erogenous zones. Erikson identified eight stages,
each of which includes a conflict or developmental task. The development of a healthy personality
and a sense of competence depend on the successful completion of each task.
Psychosocial Stages of Development
Erikson believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and that the ego has greater
importance in guiding our actions than does the id. We make conscious choices in life, and these
choices focus on meeting certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological
ones. Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place,
that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a
meaningful life. These are all psychosocial problems.
Erikson’s theory is based on what he calls the epigenetic principle, encompassing the notion that we
develop through an unfolding of our personality in predetermined stages, and that our environment
and surrounding culture influence how we progress through these stages. This biological unfolding in
relation to our socio-cultural settings is done in stages of psychosocial development, where “progress
through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous
stages.”[1]
Erikson described eight stages, each with a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to
overcome. Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our life span as
we face these challenges. We will discuss each of these stages in greater detail when we discuss each
of these life stages throughout the course. Here is an overview of each stage:
1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Hope)—From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults
can be trusted. This occurs when adults meet a child’s basic needs for survival. Infants are
dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their
infant’s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a
safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs can
engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as
unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met appropriately, they
will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame (Will)—As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they
learn that they can control their actions and act on their environment to get results. They
begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys,
and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt
by working to establish independence. This is the “me do it” stage. For example, we might
observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes
and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input
in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity
to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-
esteem and feelings of shame.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (Purpose)—Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they
are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social
interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of
initiative vs. guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others,
preschool children can master this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility,
occurs when parents allow a child to explore within limits and then support the child’s
choice. These children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who
are unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling
parents—may develop feelings of guilt.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (Competence)—During the elementary school stage (ages 7–12),
children face the task of industry vs. inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with
their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and
accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel
inferior and inadequate because they feel that they don’t measure up. If children do not
learn to get along with others or have negative experiences at home or with peers, an
inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and adulthood.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Fidelity)—In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task
of identity vs. role confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a
sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want
to do with my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see
which ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their
adult selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and
are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people’s
perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity,
or are pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the future, they may develop a weak
sense of self and experience role confusion. They will be unsure of their identity and
confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role will likely struggle
to find themselves as adults.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Love)—People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are
concerned with intimacy vs. isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in
adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. However, if other stages have not
been successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and maintaining
successful relationships with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self
before we can develop successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a
positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional
isolation.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Care)—When people reach their 40s, they enter the time
known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle
adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and
contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering,
mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing to
the next generation, often through caring for others; they also engage in meaningful and
productive work which contributes positively to society. Those who do not master this task
may experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a
meaningful way; they may have little connection with others and little interest in productivity
and self-improvement.
8. Integrity vs. Despair (Wisdom)—From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of
development known as late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity vs.
despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of
satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a
sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people
who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on
what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have” been. They may face the end of their
lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.
Approximate Virtue: Developmental
Stage Description
Age (years) Task
1 0–1 Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection,
Will: Autonomy vs.
2 1–3 Sense of independence in many tasks develops
Shame
Purpose: Initiative vs. Take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not m
3 3–6
Guilt overstepped
Competence: Industry
4 7–11 Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferior
vs. Inferiority
Fidelity: Identity vs. Role
5 12–18 Experiment with and develop identity and roles
Confusion
Approximate Virtue: Developmental
Stage Description
Age (years) Task
Love: Intimacy vs.
6 19–39 Establish intimacy and relationships with others
Isolation
Care: Generativity vs.
7 40–64 Contribute to society and be part of a family
Stagnation
Wisdom: Integrity vs.
8 65+ Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions
Despair
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development
Strengths and weaknesses of Erikson’s theory
Erikson’s eight stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional and social development during
the lifespan. Keep in mind, however, that these stages or crises can occur more than once or at
different times of life. For instance, a person may struggle with a lack of trust beyond
infancy. Erikson’s theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the
completion of one stage is a prerequisite for the next crisis of development. His theory also focuses
on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all. For instance, the idea that
adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the
United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty
through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices.
By and large, Erikson’s view that development continues throughout the lifespan is very significant
and has received great recognition. However, like Freud’s theory, it has been criticized for focusing on
more men than women and also for its vagueness, making it difficult to test rigorously.
2. Guidance and counselling in educational setting
Two major form of guidance provided in educational settings are educational and vocational
guidance.
School Counselling
3. career guidance
4. counselling adolescents;
DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES DURING ADOLESCENCE
Childhood and adolescence are considered as important predictors of a healthy adulthood.
Adolescence is characterized by several types of changes in their physical, psychological as well as
social functioning. This phase is considered as the zone of transition within which the child gets on
the journey to becoming an adult. According to the World Health Organization, adolescence covers
age range of 10-19 years; whereas 10-24 years age group is described as young people which
includes the youth age group of 15-24 years. Although children and adolescents pass through specific
developmental changes and characteristics, there is diversity also in this age group influenced by
various socio-cultural background and contexts. Hence this young population is dynamic in nature
and counselling for this age group needs to take this into account. Counselor also needs to be aware
of various developmental changes in adolescents.
The stage of adolescence is marked by rapid changes in cognitive, emotional, psychosocial and
physical domain. Physical changes include bodily growth like height, mass, and secondary sexual
characteristics like changes in voice pitch. Cognitive changes are related to the mental processes such
as reasoning, abstraction, visuo-spatial orientation, and problem solving ability. Emotional changes
include exhibiting more anger, hostility, fear, and anxiety, and lacking in emotional competence.
Psychosocial changes are marked by changes with regard to independence, social relationships,
autonomy, identity formation and future orientations.
COUNSELLING CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS
- Family therapy
- Play therapy
- Behaviour Therapy
- Mindfulness practices
- Art Threapy
5. family counselling;
6. Crisis intervention: suicide, grief and sexual abuse, special areas in counselling- LGBTQ
Group, complexities of different groups
(Both the topics are from book chapters given in different pdf)