Chapter 2
Review Related Literature and Studies
Elections have historical roots in ancient Athens, Rome, and the selection processes for
popes and Holy Roman emperors. The concept of elections in the modern era began with the
gradual development of representative governments in Europe and North America in the 17th
century, forming the foundation for modern representation. An election is formally defined as the
process of choosing individuals for public office or deciding on political propositions through
voting. In democratic systems, voting rights are granted to the people, often with specific
eligibility requirements (Webb et al., 2020).
Electing public officials to their respective roles through voting is one of the most eagerly
awaited events in the Philippines. Voters are often fervent supporters of their chosen
candidates. Political candidates engage in numerous campaigns and utilize various forms of
propaganda to win over voters. Elections in the Philippines are notably personality-driven, with
the right to vote viewed as a key democratic exercise protected by the constitution (Velmonte,
2020). Ultimately, elections are highly anticipated events in the country, and citizens'
participation reflects their commitment to the nation.
In addition, Political campaigns, or election campaigns, are the methods candidates and
political parties use to communicate their ideas and positions on key issues to voters in the
lead-up to Election Day. Candidates employ a range of strategies to reach voters and convey
their messages, utilizing both traditional and new media, public events, print materials, and
more. During this period, registered voters can evaluate and decide which candidates to
support. Campaigns play a critical role in elections, as candidates leverage various media
channels to promote themselves and their platforms. Through diverse political strategies,
candidates advertise and position themselves to gain public support for their respective offices.
Rational Choice Theory
Rational choice theory assumes that individuals make decisions by comparing the costs
and benefits to maximize their personal utility. When applied to voting behavior, this theory
suggests that voters will make their choices based on a rational evaluation of which candidate
or policy will best serve their interests. The article titled "Voting Choice and Rational Choice",
(McGann, 2016) delves into this concept, explaining how voters, seen as rational actors, weigh
the benefits of voting for a particular candidate against the costs of voting, such as time and
effort. Voters will choose the candidate they believe will bring them the most personal or societal
benefit. The theory also looks at collective voting behavior, examining how individual rational
choices aggregate to form overall voting patterns. Voters are assumed to vote in a way that
maximizes their expected utility, considering both personal gains and broader societal impacts.
The concept of strategic voting is also explored, where voters might not vote for their top
preference to avoid wasting their vote. Instead, they may choose a less preferred but more
viable candidate who has a better chance of winning.
In addition, understanding voting through the lens of rational choice can provide insights
into electoral outcomes and the effectiveness of different campaign strategies. It helps explain
why some voters may be more responsive to certain types of political messaging or policy
proposals. Although the theory is not without its critics, as real-world voting behavior often
includes emotional, social, and irrational elements, it provides a useful tool for predicting and
analyzing voting patterns and understanding the motivations behind voter decisions.
Related Studies of Voting Behavior
In his book “Political Propaganda, Advertising, and Public Relations”, Assay (2020)
explains that political parties and candidates are the central figures in campaigns and elections.
Electoral campaigns play a crucial role in modern democratic politics, as they provide elected
officials with a means to address voters' preferences. Assay outlines four key elements in every
election campaign: firstly, a time to highlight the political parties each candidate is affiliated with;
secondly, an opportunity for candidates to present their agendas through public meetings with
voters; thirdly, a period when election-related information becomes a focal point in communities
and the media; and finally, a phase where voters become familiar with the propaganda and
agendas of each candidate and their associated parties. A successful campaign, Assay notes,
relies on adequate resources, robust political party support, and well-planned strategies to earn
voters’ trust. According to Benoit and Hansen (2017), exposure to media coverage has
significantly influenced the voters' preferences.
In Philippine politics, political parties play a crucial role. Each national party typically has
a platform-writing committee that includes key party members and representatives from interest
groups aligned with the party. This committee works during the spring and summer before the
presidential conventions to draft the party platform (Hershey, 2020). Platform writers often face
the challenge of balancing candidates' need for broad voter appeal with interest groups’
demands for specific commitments. Generally, the platform contains language that appeals to
the general electorate, along with a list of promises directed at organized groups. Political
parties are essential to candidates, providing campaign support in the form of organizational
resources, logistics, and financial backing. The platform outlines the candidate's intended
policies if elected, representing the values and principles of the party. Therefore, a political
party’s support can significantly aid a candidate’s election efforts.
In this study titled “Factors Influencing Voting Decision: A Comprehensive Literature
Review”, (Kulachai et al., 2023) provides a detailed breakdown of voting behavior, emphasizing
the complex interplay of personal, psychological, social, and environmental influences.
Demographic and personal factors such as age, gender, education, income, and social class
shape voter preferences and behaviors. For example, younger voters may prioritize different
issues than older voters, and income levels can impact views on economic policies.
Psychological drivers and emotions, including emotional responses to candidates, party loyalty,
and the level of trust in political institutions, significantly influence choices. Voters with strong
party identification often rely on their loyalty, while emotional responses to issues or candidates
can sway opinions, particularly when trust in the political system is low. The study highlights how
traditional and social media exposure plays a crucial role in shaping voter awareness and
attitudes, affecting turnout and perception of candidates. Campaign strategies, including
targeted advertisements and public debates, influence both undecided and loyal voters by either
reinforcing preferences or persuading them to reconsider. Socioeconomic and environmental
context, such as political climate and economic stability, directly impact voting behavior. During
economic downturns or politically unstable periods, voters may seek candidates who promise
change or stability. In contrast, in favorable times, voters may lean towards continuity. Social
and group dynamics, including social identity, peer influences, and group affiliations (such as
labor unions or religious organizations), can amplify voting preferences, as individuals often
adopt the political norms of their communities. Another influencing factor in choosing a
candidate is religion. The endorsement of candidates by Ereno and Jabines: Exploring the
Voting Behavior of the Cebuano Electorate 17 religious officials has a significant impact on
voters' preferences. Through the work of different religious and political scholars, using
multinomial logistic regression analysis, a study indicated that the degree of belief and practices
in a religious organization were key predictors in choosing presidential candidates (Bradberry,
2016).
In 2015, a study conducted by the Institute for Political and Electoral Reform (IPER)
determined the factors that define the votes of Filipinos. To identify the underlying voting
behavior, Factor Analysis was employed for the 18 variables that served as indicators to
measure what determined the vote. The study used a Likert scale of 1 to 5. Based on the results
of the study, the factors were reduced to just four key factors that determined the vote of a
Filipino. These are the benefit factor (characteristics that can be of benefit to the voter), political
machinery, popularity, and endorsement of a traditional network. However, studies of
Madeloso,et al., (2023) The various factors influencing voting behavior and candidate
preferences, it highlights the importance of personal characteristics, such as political experience
and personality traits, in shaping voter perceptions and decisions. Leadership qualities,
including the ability to make informed judgments and inspire collaboration, are also crucial. The
political machinery of candidates, including campaign strategies and vote-buying practices,
significantly impacts voter preferences. The popularity of candidates, often influenced by social
media and celebrity endorsements, plays a vital role in elections. The text also notes that voters,
especially younger ones, are increasingly cynical about traditional politicians and are swayed by
candidates' distinct features and propositions. Overall, the study emphasizes the complex
interplay of personal, psychological, social, and environmental factors in voting behavior.
A study of Carreon, et al., (2022). That the "Eichmann problem" discusses the moral
dilemma of carrying out duties that are inherently wrong, using Nazi officer Adolf Eichmann as
an example. Eichmann justified his actions as mere duty, lacking moral responsibility, a concept
Hannah Arendt called the "banality of evil." The text parallels this with voting behavior in the
Philippines, suggesting that voters often prioritize short-term survival over the common good,
influenced by exploitation and misinformation. Voters, despite the ability to make good-faith
decisions, are manipulated by those in power, leading to normalized immoral actions, such as
vote-buying. The text calls for voters to prioritize the common good and resist political
manipulation. It argues that this behavior has become normalized, much like Eichmann's
justification of his actions. The researchers suggest that voters are not inherently fickle-minded
but are influenced by a system that limits their freedom and autonomy of thought. They
concludes by calling for a deeper examination of the "Eichmann problem" in society,
emphasizing the need for voters to prioritize the common good and resist manipulation by
political actors.
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