ADVANCED

MANUFACTURING
TECHNOLOGY
FOR FOURTH SEMESTER
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(REGULATION – 2023)

N. IYANARAPPAN, M.E., M.I.S.T.E.

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ADVANCED MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

Copy right © : Publishers

No part of this publication may be stored in a retrieval system, transmitted or reproduced
in any way, including but not limited to photocopy, photograph, magnetic or other record,
without prior agreement and written permission of the publisher.

First Edition : December 2024

Price : 198.00

For Contact :
99446 50380
96266 26747
Publisher :
KAL PATHIPPAGAM
Vellore – 632 011

Type setting :
Students’ Media Computer Graphics
Vellore – 632 011.
 PREFACE
This book on ADVANCE MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY has been
written to cover the latest revised syllabus for the Polytechnic college students of
IV Semester Mechanical Engineering.

All the topics in this book are written in simple and constructive manner
with suitable examples and neat sketches. I assure that the review questions
added at the end of each chapter will be more helpful to the students while
preparing for the examination.

I acknowledge my gratitude with thanks to M/s. KAL PATHIPPAGAM

for their kind encouragement to bring out this book in time. The author would be
very glad and thankful to receive any comments and constructive suggestions for
the improvement of this book.

N. Iyanarappan
(iyanarvlr1976@[Link])

All the best...

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 C o n t!
ents
Page Nos.

Unit –
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I. Types Of Plastics and Processing of Plastics... 1.1 – 1.25

Unit – II. Modern Machining, Super Finishing and

Surface Treatment Processes .................. 2.1 – 2.40

Unit – III. Unconventional Machining Processes ........... 3.1 – 3.15

Unit – IV. CNC Machines and CNC Programming ........ 4.1 – 4.37

Unit – V. Rapid Prototyping ..................................... 5.1 – 5.15

One Mark Questions & Answers for MCQ

Model Question Papers

 1020234110 ADVANCED MANUFACTURING L T P C
THEORY TECHNOLOGY 3 0 0 3

DETAILED SYLLABUS

Unit – I: TYPES OF PLASTICS AND PROCESSING OF PLASTICS

Types of Plastics: Engineering plastics - thermosets - comparison of
thermoplastic and thermosetting plastics - composite - structural foam,
elastomers - polymer alloys and liquid crystal polymers.
Processing of Plastics: Extrusion - single screw extrusion - twin screw extruders
9
and types - Injection moulding types: Plunger type - Reciprocating screw injection
- structural foam injection mould - sandwich moulding - gas injection moulding -
calendaring and rotational moulding - Design consideration for plastic
components.

Unit – II: MODERN MACHINING , SUPER FINISHING AND SURFACE TREATMENT

PROCESSES
Modern Machining Processes: Precision and ultra precision machining - Micro
and nano machining - high speed machining - hot machining - basic principles,
working, applications, advantages.

Super finishing processes: Introduction - working principle of Honing - lapping -

burnishing - polishing - buffing - advantages - applications.
9
Surface treatment processes: Introduction - working principle - surface
hardening - shot peening - galvanizing - powder coating - thermal spraying -
Vapour deposition processes: types - Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) -
Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) - sputtering - electroplating - cladding - hot
dipping - painting - advantages - applications.

Unit – III: UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES

Introduction - classification - construction and working principle of abrasive jet
machining (AJM) - water jet machining (WJM) - ultrasonic machining (USM) -
electrical discharge machine (EDM) - electron beam machining (EBM) - laser
beam machining (LBM) - plasma arc machining (PAM) - Chemical Machining 8
(CHM) - Electro Chemical Machining (ECM) - advantages - disadvantages and
applications.
 Unit – IV: CNC MACHINES AND CNC PROGRAMMING
CNC machines: Numerical control - definition - working principle of a CNC system
- advantages of CNC machines - difference between NC and CNC - construction
and working principle of turning centre - construction and working principle of
machining centre - machine axes conventions for turning centre and machining
centre - coordinate measuring machine (CMM) - construction and working
principle.

11
CNC Programming: Introduction - Cartesian coordinate system - Polar coordinate
system - Absolute and incremental positioning - Purpose of G and M codes - CNC
program procedure - Homing position - Offset setting - Work offset setting
procedure - Tool offset - CNC turning program using linear interpolation and
circular interpolation - CNC milling program using linear interpolation and circular
interpolation - compensation

Unit – V: RAPID PROTOTYPING

Introduction - Classification - subtractive - additive - advantages and applications
- materials - Working principles – Methods: Stereolithography - Laser Sintering -
Fused Deposition Method - 3D printing - Working Principle - applications and 8
limitations - Rapid tooling - Overview of other techniques in rapid manufacturing.

TOTAL HOURS 45

Suggested List of Students Activity

1) Presentation/Seminars by students on any recent technological developments
based on the course.
2) Online MCQ have to be conducted for all the five units.

3) Blended learning activities to explore the recent trends and developments in the
field.
 ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY

Continuous Assessment (40 marks) End Semester

Examination
CA–1 CA–2 CA–3 CA–4 (60 marks)
Quiz -MCQ
Written Test Written Test Model Written
Mode (Online /
(Unit – 1 & 2) (Unit – 3 & 4) Examination Examination
Offline)
Duration 2 Periods 2 Periods 1 Hour 3 Hours 3 Hours
Exam Marks 50 50 60 100 100
Converted to 15 15 5 20 60
Marks 15 5 20 60
Tentative 6th 12th 13 - 14th 16th
-
Schedule Week Week Week Week

CA–1 & CA–2: Assessment written test should be conducted for 50 Marks for two
units. The marks scored will be converted to 15 Marks. Best of one will be considered
for the internal assessment of 15 Marks.
CA-1and CA-2, Assessment test should be conducted for two units as below.
 Answer five questions (5 X 10 Marks = 50 Marks).
 Eight questions will be asked, students should write Five questions. Each unit
Four questions can be asked.
 Each question may have subdivisions. Maximum two subdivisions shall be
permitted.
CA–3: 60 MCQ can be asked by covering the entire portion. It may be conducted by
Online / Offline. The answer scripts of every student (online / offline) for this
assessment should be kept for records and future verification. The marks scored
should be converted to 5 marks for the internal assessment.

CA–4: Model examination should be conducted as per the end semester question
pattern. The marks should be converted to 20 marks for the internal assessment.

END SEMESTER EXAMINATION

Question Pattern:
Answer Ten questions by selecting two questions from each unit. Each question
carries 10 marks each.
Four questions will be asked from every unit, students should write any two questions.
The question may have two subdivisions only.
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 Unit – I
TYPES OF PLASTICS AND
PROCESSING OF PLASTICS
1.1 Introduction
Plastic is a material consisting of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic
organic polymers that are malleable and can be moulded into solid objects. A polymer
(means “many parts” in Greek) is a chemical compound where many molecules are
bonded together in long repeating chains. Plastic have become an essential necessity in
all aspects of today’s modern life.

1.2 Classification of Plastics

1) Thermoplastics

M
Plastics that become soft on heating, melt on heating and can be moulded again

A
and again are known as thermoplastics. Repetitive heating of thermoplastics does not

G
cause permanent change in properties or composition.
PA
In a thermoplastic material the very long chain-like molecules are held together
IP

by relatively weak forces. When the material is heated the intermolecular forces are
TH

weakened so that it becomes soft and flexible. When the material is allowed to cool, it
solidifies again. This cycle of softening by heat and solidifying on cooling can be repeated
PA

indefinitely. It is the basis of most processing methods for these materials.

2) Thermosetting plastics
L
A

Thermosetting plastics can be softened on heating but they become permanently

K

hard on cooling. They can not be remoulded again. These plastics have cross-linked
molecular structure. They have a three dimensional network of molecules and will not
soften when reheated. They are practically insoluble, fire-proof, and usually hard and
brittle. These plastics cannot be reused.

Difference between thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics

Thermoplastics Thermosetting plastics
1) Can be repeatedly softened by heat Once hardened and set, cannot be
and hardened by cooling. softened with the application of heat.
2) Addition polymers. Condensation polymers.
3) Have long chain-like molecular Have cross-linked molecular structure.
structure.

Unit – I  1.1
 Thermoplastics Thermosetting plastics
4) Comparatively softer and less strong. More stronger and harder than
thermoplastics.
5) Cannot be used at higher Can be used comparatively at higher
temperature. temperature.
6) Heat sensitive. Not heat sensitive.
7) Recyclable Not recyclable
8) Uses: Toys, combs, photo-graphic Uses: Automobile parts, electric plugs,
films, insulating tapes, hoses, electric camera bodies, electric switch panels,
insulation, etc. T.V cabinets, etc.

1.3 Types of plastics

Plastics are divided into the following groups based on their characteristics and

M
applications:

A
1) Engineering plastics 2) Thermosets 3) Composites 4) Structural foam

G
5) Elastomers 6) Polymer alloys 7) Liquid crystal polymers

1) Engineering plastics PA
Engineering plastics are a group of plastic materials having better mechanical and
IP
thermal properties than the widely used common plastics. Many thermoplastics are now
TH

accepted as engineering materials. Thermoplastics can be used as a superior alternative

to metals.
PA

Properties
High strength and stiffness
L

High impact resistance

A

Low thermal expansion

K

High corrosion resistance

Good wear resistance
Good electrical insulation
Examples
Polyamide (PA, Nylon)
Polycarbonate (PC)
Polyoxymethylene (POM, Acetal)
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT)
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS)
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)
Polysulfone (PSU)

Unit – I  1.2
Applications
Automotive: Engine components, interior and exterior trim, electrical
connectors, and fuel systems.
Aerospace: Aircraft interiors, structural components, and insulation.
Electronics: Housings, connectors, circuit boards, and insulation.
Medical devices: Surgical instruments, diagnostic equipment, and implantable
devices.
Industrial machinery: Gears, bearings, seals, and structural components.
Consumer products: Appliances, sporting goods, and toys.

Advantages
Good mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties.
Long lifespan and resistance to wear.
Can be moulded into complex shapes.

M
Lightweight compared to metals.

A
Cheaper than metals.

G
Disadvantages PA
More expensive than common plastics.
IP
Require special processing techniques and equipment.
TH

Difficult to recycle.

2) Thermosets
PA

Thermosetting plastics can be softened on heating but they become permanently

hard on cooling. They can not be remoulded again. These plastics have cross-linked
L

molecular structure. They have a three dimensional network of molecules and will not
A

soften when reheated. These plastics cannot be reused.

K

Properties
High thermal stability
More rigidity and strength
More chemical resistance
Good electrical insulation
Examples
Epoxy resins
Phenolic resins
Melamine resins
Urea-formaldehyde resins
Polyester resins
Bakelite

Unit – I  1.3
Applications
Electronics: Insulating materials, circuit boards, and casings.
Automotive: manufacturing heat-resistant and durable parts.
Construction: Adhesives, coatings, and composite materials for building.
Aerospace: Composite materials for high-strength, lightweight components.
Household items: Kitchenware, laminates, and electrical fittings.

Advantages
Good thermal stability.
More heat resistance.
High mechanical strength.
More durability.
Good chemical resistance.

M
Good electrical resistance.

A
Disadvantages

G
Non-recyclable after curing.
PA
More brittle compared to thermoplastics.
More complex to process and mould.
IP

More production cost.

TH

3) Composites
PA

Composites are made of a matrix material embedded in a reinforcement material.

Plastic composites are a subset of composite materials where the matrix is a plastic.
L

These composites are reinforced with materials such as fibers, particles, or other
A

additives to improve their mechanical, thermal, or electrical properties.

K

Types of plastic composites

Fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP): Consist of a plastic matrix reinforced with fibers
such as glass, carbon, or aramid. Examples: Glass fiber-reinforced plastic
(GFRP), carbon fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP).
Particle-reinforced plastic: Consist of a plastic matrix with particles such as
ceramics, metals, or other polymers dispersed throughout. Examples: Filled
polymers like rubber-toughened plastics or nano-clay reinforced plastics.
Nanocomposites: Consist of a plastic matrix reinforced with nanoparticles, such
as carbon nanotubes, nanoclays, or graphene. Examples: Polymer
nanocomposites used in flexible electronics or lightweight automotive parts.

Unit – I  1.4
Applications
Aerospace: Aircraft structures, interior components, and lightweight panels.
Automotive: Body panels, interior components, engine parts, and structural
elements.
Construction: Reinforced concrete, structural components, pipes, and fittings.
Sports equipment: Bicycles, golf clubs, tennis rackets, helmets, and protective
gear.
Marine: Boat hulls, decks, and other marine structures.
Electronics: Housings, components, and flexible electronics.

Advantages
High strength-to-weight ratio.
Properties can be customized.
High corrosion resistance.

M
Long durability.

A
Can be moulded into complex shapes and structures.

G
Disadvantages
More expensive.
PA
IP
More complicated production processes.
Difficult to repair and recycle.
TH

Performance depends on the quality of the manufacturing process.

PA

4) Structural foam
Structural foam is a type of material used in various industries for its lightweight
L

and high-strength properties. It is created by mixing a polymer with a blowing agent. The
A

mixture is then injected into a mould. As the polymer cools and solidifies, the blowing
K

agent creates a cellular structure within the material. It gives a foam with a dense outer
skin and a lighter cellular core.

Properties
Lightweight
High strength-to-weight ratio
Good thermal and acoustic insulation properties.
Resistant to moisture, chemicals, and environmental impact.

Examples
Polyurethane (PU) foam
Polystyrene (PS) foam
Polyethylene (PE) foam

Unit – I  1.5
 Polypropylene (PP) foam
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) foam
Polycarbonate (PC) foam
Acrylic foam
Phenolic foam
Applications
Automotive industry: Lightweight components such as bumpers, interior
panels, and underbody shields.
Construction: Building materials, insulation panels, and formwork.
Packaging: Used for protective packaging due to its cushioning properties.
Furniture: Manufacturing of lightweight and durable furniture components.
Marine industry: Production of buoyant and lightweight boat parts.

M
Advantages

A
Reduction in material usage .

G
Lower production and transportation costs.
PA
Can be moulded into complex shapes and designs.
Recyclable.
IP

Disadvantages
TH

Cellular structure affects the surface finish.

PA

Requires additional processing for good appearance.

Cost of moulds and equipment are high.
L

5) Elastomers
A

Thermoplastic rubbers are called as elastomers. They possess the desirable

K

physical characteristics of rubber but with the ease of processing of thermoplastics. Most
elastomers are manufactured into the requisite shape by cross-linking after moulding. This
is done by a curing process called vulcanization. This enables very large deformation of
rubber on loading in tension and reverting back to its original dimension on release of the
load.

Properties
Elasticity: Can be stretched to several times their original length.
Resilience: High ability to recover their shape after deformation.
Durability: Good resistance to wear and tear, and various environmental factors.
Flexibility: Remain flexible over a wide range of temperatures.

Unit – I  1.6
Examples
Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR)
Nitrile Rubber (NBR)
Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM)
Silicone Rubber (SI)
Polyurethane (PU)
Applications
Automotive industry: Tires, seals, gaskets, hoses, and suspension components.
Construction: Seals, gaskets, waterproofing membranes, and expansion joints.
Healthcare: Medical devices, tubing, seals, and protective equipment.
Consumer goods: Footwear, sports equipment, kitchenware, and toys.
Electronics: Insulating materials, seals, and flexible connectors.
Aerospace: Seals, gaskets, and flexible hoses.

M
A
Advantages

G
Can be customized for specific requirements.
High resistance to wear and tear. PA
Resistance to high temperatures, chemicals, and UV radiation.
IP
Provides cushioning and flexibility
TH

Disadvantages
Degradation over time.
PA

High-performance elastomers can be expensive to produce.

Requires specialized equipment and techniques.
L
A

6) Polymer alloys
Polymer alloys or polymer blends are materials made by combining two or more
K

different polymers to create a new material with improved properties. This combination
allows manufacturers to customize the material's properties to meet specific
requirements that are not achievable with individual polymers alone. Polymer alloys can
be blends of thermoplastics, thermosets, or elastomers. Additives such as fillers,
stabilizers, plasticizers, and compatibilizers are included to improve specific properties.

Properties
Improved strength, toughness, and impact resistance.
High thermal stability
Increased resistance to chemicals and environmental degradation.
Easier processing during manufacturing
Improved appearance, colourability, and surface finish.

Unit – I  1.7
Types of polymer alloys
Thermoplastic blends: Combinations of thermoplastics.
Thermoset blends: Combinations of thermosetting polymers.
Thermoplastic elastomers: Blends of elastomers with thermoplastics
Conductive polymer blends: Polymers combined with conductive fillers to
create materials with electrical conductivity.

Applications
Automotive Industry: Bumpers, dashboards, and trim panels
Electronics: Housings, connectors, and insulating materials
Packaging: Creating robust, flexible, and lightweight packaging.
Construction: Pipes, fittings, and building materials
Medical devices: Medical tubing, equipment housings, and implants

M
A
Advantages

G
Customizable properties
More cost-effective PA
Wide range of applications
IP
Improved mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties.
TH

Disadvantages
Compatibility issues.
PA

Requires precise control over processing conditions.

Development and production cost is high.
L

Recycling and disposal is difficult.

A
K

Examples

Polymer Alloy Properties

ABS High impact resistance, toughness, good heat
(Acrylonitrile Butadiene resistance, and easy processing.
Styrene)
PC/ABS High impact resistance toughness, rigidity and heat
(Polycarbonate/Acrylonitrile resistance
Butadiene Styrene)
PBT/PET Good mechanical strength, dimensional stability,
(Polybutylene Terephthalate/ chemical resistance, and heat resistance.
Polyethylene Terephthalate)

Unit – I  1.8
 Polymer Alloy Properties
Nylon Alloys Improved toughness, reduced moisture absorption
(PA/PP, PA/PE) compared to pure nylon, and enhanced process
PC/PBT Good impact resistance, dimensional stability, and heat
(Polycarbonate/Polybutylene resistance.
Terephthalate)
PS/PPO High heat resistance, dimensional stability, and good
(Polystyrene/Polyphenylene electrical properties.
Oxide)
SAN (Styrene Acrylonitrile) Good chemical resistance, clarity, and stiffness.

7) Liquid crystal polymers (LCP)

Liquid crystal polymers are based on thermoplastic aromatic polyesters. They

M
have a highly ordered structure both in molten state and solid state. When these

A
materials are subjected to stress the molecular chains slide over one another but the

G
ordered structure is retained. This property makes them suitable for high performance
applications. PA
Properties
IP

High thermal stability

TH

High tensile strength, stiffness, and impact resistance.

Hight resistant to chemicals
PA

Low coefficient of thermal expansion

Good electrical properties
L

Low moisture absorption

A
K

Types of LCPs:
Lyotropic LCPs: These LCPs form liquid crystalline phases when dissolved in a
solvent.
Thermotropic LCPs: These LCPs form liquid crystalline phases while heating.

Examples
Vectra, Zenite, Laperos, Sumikasuper, Xydar, Radel, etc.

Applications
Electronics: Connectors, flexible printed circuits, and high-frequency
components.
Automotive: Connectors, and sensors

Unit – I  1.9
 Medical devices: Surgical instruments, medical device housings, and
components.
Aerospace: High-performance parts that need to withstand extreme
temperatures and mechanical stress.
Industrial applications: Gears, bearings, and other mechanical components
Consumer electronics: Smartphones, laptops, and other devices.

Advantages
Good mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties.
Can be moulded into very thin and intricate shapes
High dimensional accuracy.
Suitable for lightweight applications.
More durable

M
Disadvantages

A
More expensive

G
Requires specialized processing techniques
Limited flexibility PA
IP
PROCESSING OF PLASTICS
TH

1.4 Extrusion
One of the most common methods of processing plastics is Extrusion using a screw
PA

inside a barrel. Based on the number of screws used, the extruders are classified as
1) Single screw extruders
L

2) Twin screw extruders

A

1) Single screw extruder

K

Plastic
Powder or
granules
Heaters Hopper
Die (or) Mould Barrel

Variable
speed
drive

Nozzle Rotating screw

Cooling colis
Fig.1.1 Single screw extruder

A single screw extruder is a machine used for the extrusion of polymers and other
materials. It is one of the most common types of extruders used in the plastics industry.

Unit – I  1.10
Components
Hopper: It feeds the raw material into the extruder. It can be equipped with
feeders to control the feed rate.
Barrel: It houses the screw and acts as a container for the material. It is also
equipped with heating and cooling elements to control the temperature of the
material along the length of barrel.
Screw: It rotates and moves the material through the barrel. The screw is
designed with various sections to perform specific functions:
 Feeding zone: Transports material from the hopper.
 Melting zone: Heats and melts the material.
 Mixing zone: Mixes and disperses additives or fillers.
 Metering zone: Prepares the material for extrusion through the die.
Die or mould: It is designed to the final shape of the required product.

M
Cooling system: Cools the extruded product to solidify it. Methods include water

A
baths, air cooling, or cooling rolls.

G
Working principle PA
Feeding: Raw material in the form of granules or powder is fed into the hopper.
IP
It is conveyed into the barrel by the rotating screw.
TH

Melting: The material is heated by the barrel's heating elements and by the
mechanical shear generated by the rotating screw.
PA

Mixing: The molten material is further mixed to ensure a consistent melt.

Extrusion: The molten material is forced through the die to form the desired shape.
L

Cooling and solidification: The extruded product is cooled and solidified. It is

A

further processed as needed, such as cutting, rolling or winding.

K

Applications
Plastic products such as pipes, profiles, sheets, films, and filaments.

Advantages
Suitable for a wide range of materials and applications.
More affordable than other types of extruders
Easier to operate
Easier to maintain
Disadvantages
Limited mixing capability
Lower output rate
Requires precise control of temperature

Unit – I  1.11
2) Twin screw extruder
The method of processing of plastics using twin screw extruders is similar as that
of single screw extruders. But they have two screws rotating in a heated barrel. The
following screw configurations are available:
a) Counter-rotating (screws rotate in opposite directions)
b) Co-rotating (both screws rotate in the same direction)
Plastic
Powder or
Hopper granules
Heaters
Die (or) Mould Barrel

Variable
speed
drive

M
Nozzle Counter-rotating
twin-screw

A
Cooling colis

G
Fig.1.2 Twin screw extruder
Components PA
Hopper: It feeds the raw material into the extruder. It can be equipped with
IP
feeders to control the feed rate.
TH

Barrel: It houses the screws and acts as a container for the material. It is also
equipped with heating and cooling elements to control the temperature of the
PA

material along the length of barrel.

Screws: The screws intermesh and rotate, conveying and mixing the material.
L

They are designed with various sections to perform specific functions:

A

 Feeding zone: Transports material from the hopper.

K

 Melting zone: Heats and melts the material.

 Mixing zone: Mixes and disperses additives or fillers.
 Metering zone: Prepares the material for extrusion through the die.
Die or mould: It is designed to the final shape of the required product.
Cooling system: Cools the extruded product to solidify it. Methods include water
baths, air cooling, or cooling rolls.

Working principle
Feeding: Raw material in the form of granules or powder is fed into the hopper
and conveyed into the barrel by the rotating screws.
Melting: The material is heated by the barrel's heating elements and by the
mechanical shear generated by the rotating screw.

Unit – I  1.12
 Mixing: The molten material is further mixed to ensure a consistent melt.
Extrusion: The molten material is forced through the die to form the desired shape.
Cooling and solidification: The extruded product is cooled and solidified. It is
further processed as needed, such as cutting, rolling or winding.
Advantages
Excellent mixing capabilities.
Suitable for processing a wide range of materials.
Customization to meet specific requirements.
Better control over temperature and shear
High output rate

Disadvantages
More complex design

M
Requires skilled operators.

A
High initial cost.

G
High maintenance cost.

1.5 Injection moulding

PA
IP
Injection moulding is one of the most common processing methods for plastics. The
common types are:
TH

1) Plunger type injection moulding

2) Reciprocating screw injection moulding
PA

3) Structural foam injection moulding

4) Sandwich moulding
L

5) Gas injection moulding

A
K

1.5.1 Plunger type injection moulding

It is an older type of injection moulding method in which a plunger mechanism is
used to inject the molten plastic into the mould.

Components
Hopper: Feeds raw plastic material into the heating chamber.
Heating chamber: Heats the plastic material until it melts.
Heating elements: Consists of electrical heaters or other heating mechanisms to
maintain the desired temperature for melting the plastic.
Plunger: Pushes the molten plastic from the heating chamber into the mould.

Unit – I  1.13
 Torpedo: Splits up the mass of material in the barrel and improve the heat
transfer.
Nozzle: Injects the molten plastic into the mould.
Mould: It consists of two halves that shape the molten plastic into the desired part.

Plastic
Powder
or pellets
Heaters
Hopper
Torpedo Hydraulic
Mould
injection ram

M
Nozzle

A
Molten Injection plunger
material

G
Fig.1.3 Plunger type injection moulding
Working principle PA
Feeding: The raw material in pellet or powder form is fed from the hopper into the
IP

heating chamber.
TH

Melting: The material in the heating chamber is heated until it melts and becomes a
viscous fluid.
PA

Injection: The plunger moves forward and pushed the molten plastic into the mould
cavity. through a nozzle. The plastic fills the mould cavity and takes its shape.
L
A

Cooling: The molten plastic cools and solidifies in the mould cavity.
K

Ejection: The mould opens, and ejector pins push the solidified part out of the mould.
Then the mould closes, and the cycle repeats.

Applications
Suitable for small production runs and prototyping.
Used for manufacturing simple plastic parts with less intricate designs.

Advantages
Versatility in moulding a wide range of products
Simple design
Easy to operate.
Lower initial cost

Unit – I  1.14
Disadvantages
Limited mixing capabilities
Lower efficiency
Low quality products
Higher defect rates.

1.5.2 Reciprocating screw injection moulding

In reciprocating type injection moulding, the extruder screw performs a dual role.
 It rotates in the normal way to transport, melt and pressurize the material in the barrel.
 It moves forward like a plunger to inject the molten plastic into the mould.
Plastic
Powder or
Heaters Hopper granules

Die (or) Mould Barrel

M
Variable

A
speed

G
drive
Nozzle
Cooling colis
PAReciprocating &
Rotating screw
IP
Fig.1.4 Reciprocating screw injection moulding
Components
TH

Hopper: Feeds raw plastic pellets into the barrel.

PA

Barrel: Houses the reciprocating screw.

Reciprocating screw: A helical screw that rotates and moves back and forth
within the barrel.
L
A

Heaters: Surround the barrel to heat and melt the plastic pellets.
K

Nozzle: Injects the molten plastic into the mould.

Mould: It consists of two halves that shape the molten plastic into the desired part.

Working principle
Feeding: Plastic pellets are fed from the hopper into the barrel.
Melting: The rotating screw pushes the pellets forward along the barrel. The
heaters melt the plastic.
Accumulation: The molten plastic accumulates at the front of the barrel. It
causes the screw to move backward and create a reservoir of molten plastic.
Injection: The screw moves forward and injects the molten plastic into the mould
cavity through the nozzle under high pressure.
Cooling: The molten plastic cools and solidifies in the mould cavity.

Unit – I  1.15
 Ejection: The mould opens, and ejector pins push the solidified part out of the mould.
Then the mould closes, and the cycle repeats.

Applications
Automotive parts
Consumer goods
Medical devices
Packaging materials.

Advantages
Efficient mixing.
High production rates.
Handling wide range of plastic materials.
Producing complex shapes.

M
A
Disadvantages

G
Longer cycle time
High wear and tear
PA
Excessive heating
IP

Inconsistent melt quality

TH

High initial cost

PA

1.5.3 Structural foam injection moulding

Structural foam injection moulding is a specialized form of injection moulding used
L

to produce large, rigid, and lightweight plastic parts with a cellular core and a solid outer
A

skin. This process is particularly suitable for manufacturing parts that need to be strong but
K

not heavy. A normal reciprocating screw type injection moulding machine is used in this
method.
Plastic resin +
Foaming agent

Hopper

Mould

Plunger
Air

Fig.1.5 Structural foam injection mould

Unit – I  1.16
Components
Hopper: Feeds raw material into the barrel.
Barrel: Houses the reciprocating screw.
Reciprocating screw: A helical screw that rotates and moves back and forth
within the barrel.
Heaters: Surround the barrel to heat and melt the plastic material.
Plunger: Pushes the plastic resin and foaming agent mixture into the nozzle.
Nozzle: Injects the molten plastic into the mould.
Mould: It consists of two halves that shape the molten plastic into the desired part.
Working principle
Material preparation and feeding: The thermoplastic resin is combined with a
chemical blowing agent or inert gas (like nitrogen) to create a foaming effect. The

M
material is fed from the hopper into the barrel. The heaters melt the plastic.

A
Injection and foaming: During the injection phase, the foaming agent is mixed with

G
the molten plastic. As the mixture is injected into the mould, the pressure inside the
PA
mould causes the foaming agent to expand. It creates a cellular structure within the
part. This results in a part with a dense outer skin and a lightweight foam-like core.
IP
Cooling and ejection: Once the material has filled the mould and the foaming
process is complete, the part is cooled and then ejected.
TH

Applications
PA

Bumpers and dashboards in automobiles

Household items such as chairs, tables, etc.
L

Enclosures for electronics devices.

A

Machine covers, panels, etc.

K

Advantages
The foamed core reduces the overall weight of the part.
It uses less material and lowers raw material costs.
Reduced wear and tear.
Suitable for large parts with complex geometries.
Improved strength-to-weight ratio.
Reduced warpage.
Disadvantages
Lower surface finish
Lower precision
Not suitable for all thermoplastics
Process requires careful control of temperature and pressure.

Unit – I  1.17
1.5.4 Sandwich moulding
Nozzle

Core material

Skin material

Mould

Fig.1.6 Sandwich moulding

Sandwich moulding is a specialized process in plastic injection moulding that

involves injecting two different types of plastic materials into a mould to create a product
with a layered, "sandwiched" structure. Lower-cost or recycled plastic is used as core

M
material. Higher-quality plastic is used for the skin material. This material is chosen for
its desirable surface properties, such as colour, texture, and durability.

A
G
Working principle
PA
Initially the skin material is injected to fill the mould partly.
The core material is then injected and it flows into the interior of the core. This
IP

continues until the cavity is filled.

TH

The skin material is again injected into the mould. It surrounds the core material
and forms the outer layer of the product. This skin material gives the final
PA

appearance and surface properties to the product.

The moulded product is cooled within the mould to solidify both materials. Then
L

it is ejected from the mould.

A
K

Applications
Bumpers, dashboards, and door panels of automobiles
Tool handles, appliance housings, and packaging
Casings for electronic devices,

Advantages
Reduced material costs.
Efficient use of recycled materials.
Improved mechanical properties.
High-quality finish.
Complex shapes can be produced.
More durable.

Unit – I  1.18
Disadvantages
Higher initial costs.
Complex mould design.
Increased cycle time.
Requires precise control over flow of materials.

1.5.5 Gas injection moulding

Molten
Plastic Mould

Gas core
Nozzle

M
Gas

A
G
PA
Fig.1.7 Gas injection moulding

Gas injection moulding is a specialized technique that uses gas to create hollow
IP
parts. It reduces the amount of material needed in the moulding process.
TH

Working principle
Injection of molten plastic: The plastic is heated until it melts. Then it is injected
PA

into the mould cavity.

Gas injection: After the mould is filled with molten plastic, a gas (usually nitrogen)
L

is injected into the cavity through a nozzle. This gas displaces some of the molten
A

plastic. It creates a hollow section within the part. The gas pressure forces the molten
K

plastic against the walls of the mould so that the part takes the desired shape.
Cooling and solidification: The mould is then cooled to solidify the plastic. The
gas remains trapped inside and forms a hollow structure. It reduces the amount
of solid plastic in the part. After cooling, the mould is opened and the finished part
is ejected.

Applications
Lightweight components such as dashboards, door panels, and structural parts
in automobiles.
Lightweight containers, appliance housings, and other plastic goods.
Enclosures and components for electronics devices.

Unit – I  1.19
Advantages
Weight reduction
Material savings
Improved mechanical properties
Reduced cycle time:
Better surface finish:
Complex geometries can be produced.

Disadvantages
Higher initial costs
Requires precise control over gas injection pressure and flow rates
All plastic materials are not suitable
Thin walls or intricate internal structures cannot be produced.

M
1.6 Calendaring

A
Plastic
supply

G
Heated roll
PA
IP
TH
PA
L

Plastic sheet to
A

cooling drum
K

Fig.1.8 Calendaring

The calendaring process is used to produce thin sheets or films of plastic material
with precise thickness and smooth surfaces. It is achieved by squeezing the plastic
through the gap between two counter-rotating cylinders.

Working principle
Material preparation: The raw material is in the form of a thermoplastic resin.
The resin is mixed with plasticizers, stabilizers, pigments, and other additives to
achieve the desired properties like flexibility, colour, and durability.

Unit – I  1.20
 Heating: The plastic compound is heated in an extruder to soften it into malleable
state.
Feeding: The softened plastic is fed into a series of heated rollers (calendar
rolls). These rollers are typically arranged in a series of 3 to 5, depending on the
desired output.
Thickness control: As the plastic passes through the rollers, it is compressed
and stretched by reducing its thickness. The gap between the rollers can be
precisely adjusted to control the final thickness of the plastic sheet.
Smoothing: The rollers also smooth the surface of the plastic, ensuring a smooth
finish. If a specific texture or pattern is desired, it is engraved on the surface of
rollers.
Cooling: After the plastic exits the calendaring rolls, it passes through cooling
rolls or cooling belts. This step solidifies the plastic sheet and stabilizes its

M
dimensions. Depending on the material, cooling can be achieved through water,

A
air, or a combination of both.

G
Trimming and winding: The edges of the plastic sheet may be trimmed to
PA
ensure uniform width and remove any excess material. The finished plastic sheet
is then wound onto rolls for storage, transportation, or further processing.
IP
TH

Applications
Films for food packaging, blister packs, and shrink wrap.
PA

Vinyl sheets for flooring and wall coverings.

Synthetic leather for clothing, furniture, and automotive interiors.
Plastic sheets for insulating electrical components.
L
A

Advantages
K

High control over thickness.

Good surface finish.
High output.
Little thermal degradation.

Disadvantages
All plastics are not suitable.
Higher cost of machinery.
Requires skilled operators.
Requires careful temperature control

Unit – I  1.21
1.7 Rotational Moulding
Rotational moulding is used to create seamless hollow products of various
shapes and sizes. This process uses heat and rotation to evenly distribute plastic
material inside a mould, forming the final product without the need for high pressure.

Heat chamber

Twin mould
Sliding door

Loading/
Unloading Cooling chamber
Drive
Motor

M
A
G
PA
Fig.1.9 Rotational moulding
Working principle
IP

Material preparation: The raw material is prepared in the form of powdered

TH

plastic resin.
PA

Loading: The measured amount of plastic powder is loaded into a hollow mould.
The mould is designed to create the desired shape of the final product.
L

Heating: The mould, filled with the plastic powder, is placed inside a large oven.
A

It is heated to a specific temperature to melt the plastic powder.

K

Rotation: While being heated, the mould is rotated slowly around two
perpendicular axes. The molten plastic spreads evenly and adheres to the interior
surfaces of the mould, forming a uniform layer.
Cooling: After the plastic has fully coated the interior of the mould and reached
the desired thickness, the mould is cooled. It is usually done with air or water
sprays. During cooling, the mould rotates continuously to ensure an even
thickness and prevents warping.
Part removal: Once the plastic is cooled and solidified, the mould is opened. The
finished part is removed from the mould. Depending on the design, some parts
may require trimming or additional finishing.

Unit – I  1.22
Applications
Water storage tanks, fuel tanks, and chemical containers.
Slides, climbing structures, and other large outdoor toys.
Moulded plastic chairs, tables, and other outdoor furniture.
Air ducts, toolboxes, and other vehicle components.
Bins, carts, and large housings for machinery.

Advantages
Produces seamless hollow parts.
No need of high pressure.
Uniform wall thickness can be obtained.
Complex shapes can be produced.
Cost-effective for producing large items.
Products are more durable.

M
A
Disadvantages

G
Long cycle time
PA
Suitable only for materials in powder form.
Lower surface finish
IP

1.8 Design consideration for plastic components

TH

When designing plastic components, it is essential to consider various factors

that impact the functionality, manufacturability, cost, and performance of the final
PA

product. The following are the important design considerations for plastic components:
1) Choose a plastic material that meets the mechanical, thermal, chemical, and
L
A

electrical properties required for the application.

K

2) Consider the recyclability, biodegradability, and environmental impact of the

chosen material.
3) Avoid thick sections for greater economy and faster cooling.
4) Avoid thick and thin sections under one surface because the thicker one shrinks
more and causes visible heat sinks.
5) Transition between thick and thin sections should be gradual to promote uniform
cooling and to avoid stress concentration.
6) Plastics walls must not be too thin or weak.
7) Use ribs, beads and flanges to add additional strength to the article.
8) Always avoid sharp corners.
9) Provide sufficient fillets and radii to eliminate sharp edges.
10) Use cores wherever possible for holes to avoid machining.
Unit – I  1.23
11) Avoid undercuts where possible, as they complicate the mould design and
increase costs.
12) Inserts should be strong enough to sustain mould pressure.
13) Taper is essential to remove parts from the mould without damage. A taper of 3o
is considered for plastic.
14) Provide suitable shrinkage allowance.
15) Set suitable tolerances based on the chosen manufacturing process.
16) Choose a surface finish that meets both aesthetic and functional requirements.
17) Design for easy and reliable assembly.
18) Design the component and mould for efficient cooling.
19) Design for the environment in which the plastic component will operate.
20) Ensure the design follows the relevant industry standards and regulations.

M
A
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
A
K

Unit – I  1.24
 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) Differentiate between thermoplastic and thermoset plastic. (Apr.15, Oct.18, Feb.22)

2) Briefly explain the various types of plastics available. (Oct.15, Feb.22)
3) What are engineering plastics? Explain briefly. (Apr.15)
4) Briefly explain thermosetting plastics. (Apr.15, Oct.17, Jun.21, Apr.24)
5) What are composites? State its applications, advantages and disadvantages. (Oct.14)
6) Briefly explain structural foam. Give its applications and advantages. (Oct.15)
7) What is meant by elastomers? Explain. (Apr.23)
8) What are polymer alloys? Give its applications and advantages. (Oct.15)
9) Name any five polymer alloys and state its properties.
10) What are LCPs? State its applications, advantages and disadvantages. (Oct.15)

M
11) Explain with a neat sketch the single screw extruder. (Oct.14, Apr.16, Jun.22)

A
12) With a neat sketch, explain the functioning of twin screw extruder.

G
(Apr.13, Apr.16, Oct.17, Jun.22, Apr.24)
PA
13) List out the advantages and disadvantages of twin screw extruder.
IP
14) Explain with a neat sketch any one injection moulding.(Apr.14, Oct.15)
15) Explain with a neat sketch, plunger type injection moulding. (Oct.13, Apr.23)
TH

16) Explain the reciprocating screw injection moulding with a neat sketch.
(Apr.13, Jun.22)
PA

17) Briefly explain the structural foam injection moulding method. (Apr.17, Oct.17)
18) Explain sandwich moulding with a neat sketch. (Oct.18)
L
A

19) Explain the gas injection moulding process.(Apr.14, Oct.17, Apr.18, Nov.22)
K

20) With a neat sketch explain calendaring process. (Oct.13, Apr.17, Feb.22, Oct.23)
21) Explain the rotational moulding with a neat sketch. (Oct.14, Apr.17, Oct.18, Apr.24)
22) List out important design rules for plastic components. (Apr.16, Jun.21)

 

Unit – I  1.25
 Unit – II
MODERN MACHINING, SUPER FINISHING
AND SURFACE TREATMENT PROCESSES
2.1 Modern machining processes
Modern machining processes are advanced methods used to shape, cut, and finish
materials into desired forms with high precision. These processes use new technologies
to improve efficiency, accuracy, and material properties.

Examples
1) Precision and ultra precision machining
2) Micro and nano machining

M
3) High Speed Machining (HSM)

A
4) Hot machining

G
5) Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)
6) Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
7) Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
PA
IP
8) Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)
9) Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
TH

10) Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing)

11) Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)
PA

12) Chemical Machining (CHM)

L

2.2 Precision machining

A

Precision machining is a modern machining process used for producing

K

components with tight tolerances, typically in the range of micrometers (µm). The goal is
to achieve high accuracy in dimensions, shapes, and surface finishes. These processes
are essential where minute deviations can lead to performance issues.

Working principle
Machine tool selection: CNC lathes, mills, grinders, and EDM (Electrical
Discharge Machining) machines are commonly used in precision machining.
These machines are highly automated and can perform complex operations with
high repeatability and accuracy.
Machining operations: Turning, milling, grinding, drilling and electrical discharge
machining (EDM) operations can be performed to shape the component as per
requirements.

Unit – II  2.1
 Process control: This process includes systems for real-time monitoring of cutting
forces, temperature, and tool wear. Sensors and feedback systems are used to
maintain accuracy and prevent defects. It is also equipped with systems to control
environmental factors like temperature, humidity, and vibration.
Quality control: During machining, measurements are taken to verify that the
component is within the specified tolerances. Touch probes, laser scanners, or
other metrology tools can be used.
Inspection: After machining, the final component undergoes inspection using
techniques such as coordinate measuring machines (CMMs), optical comparators,
or surface roughness testers. These inspections ensure that the part meets all
dimensional and surface finish requirements.

Applications

M
Automobile: Engine parts, fuel injectors, and gear components.

A
Aerospace: Turbine blades, landing gear components, and aircraft fasteners.

G
Medical devices: Surgical instruments, implants, and prosthetics.

Advantages PA
High accuracy and tight tolerances
IP

High surface finish

TH

Reduced material waste

Improved product life
PA

Reduced assembly time

Creation of complex geometries
L
A

Disadvantages
K

High initial costs

Longer production times
Requires regular maintenance and calibration
Requires special tooling and techniques
Requires skilled labour
High tool wear

2.3 Ultra precision machining

Ultra precision machining is a modern machining process used for producing
components with nanometer-scale tolerances and surface finishes. These processes are
essential where minute deviations can lead to performance issues.

Unit – II  2.2
Working principle
Machine tool selection: Ultra-precision CNC machines are used. These machines
are equipped with air bearings, hydrostatic guides, and other features that reduce
friction and improve precision.
Machining operations: It involves the following:
 Diamond turning: A highly precise turning process using diamond-tipped tools.
 Ultra-precision grinding: Uses specialized machines and abrasives to achieve
extremely fine finishes.
 Ion beam machining: Uses a focused beam of ions to remove material at an
atomic level.
 Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD): A process that deposits thin layers of material
at the atomic scale.

M
Process control: Machining operations are conducted in temperature-controlled

A
rooms to prevent thermal expansion. Machines are isolated from external vibrations

G
using damping systems. Feedback systems like laser interferometers are used to
monitor the position of the tool.
PA
Quality control: Advanced measurement systems are integrated into the machining
IP
process to continuously monitor dimensions, surface roughness, and other critical
TH

parameters.
PA

Applications
Optics: Production of lenses, mirrors, and other optical components.
Semiconductors: Silicon wafers, photomasks, and other devices.
L
A

Medical devices: Ultra-precise implants, micro-surgical instruments, and high-

K

precision diagnostic equipment.

Aerospace: Gyroscopes, satellite parts, and high-precision guidance systems.

Advantages
Extremely high accuracy
Exceptional surface finish
Creation of highly complex shapes and micro-features
Improved product performance
Elimination of secondary finishing operations
Improved product life

Unit – II  2.3
Disadvantages
High equipment costs
Complex setup and calibration
Longer production time
Requires highly skilled labour
High tool wear and maintenance
High operational costs

2.4 Micro machining

Micro machining is a modern machining process used to create extremely small
and precise features with dimensions in the range of micrometers. This method is used in
industries that require miniaturized components with high precision.

M
Working principles

A
Machine tool selection: Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines specifically

G
designed for micro machining are equipped with high-resolution control systems. It
PA
requires high-speed spindles to enable faster cutting and to reduce the forces on the tool.
IP
Machining operations: It includes the following:
 Micro milling: A small-diameter milling cutter removes material from the
TH

workpiece.
PA

 Micro turning: This technique is used for producing small shafts and
components.
 Laser micro machining: Lasers can be used to remove material with high
L
A

precision.
K

 Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM): Micro EDM uses electrical discharges

to erode material from the workpiece.
 Micro drilling: Micro drilling creates tiny holes with high precision.
 Focused Ion Beam (FIB) Machining: It uses a focused beam of ions to remove
material from the workpiece with extreme precision.
Process control: Closed-loop feedback mechanisms are used to manage feed rate,
spindle speed, and depth of cut. Vibration isolation techniques are used to ensure
stability and reduce the impact of external disturbances.
Quality control: Advanced sensors and measurement systems are used to to
monitor dimensions and surface quality in real time. Techniques such as laser
scanning or optical measurement are commonly used.

Unit – II  2.4
Applications
MEMS: Micro sensors, actuators, and other microelectromechanical systems.
Medical devices: Micro needles, microfluidic devices, and other precision medical
components.
Electronics: Micro connectors, circuits, and other components for small-scale
electronics.

Advantages
High precision and accuracy
Miniaturization of components
Fabrication of complex geometries
Improved surface finish
Easy customization of parts

M
Reduced material wastage
Improved product performance

A
G
Disadvantages
High equipment costs PA
Complex setup and calibration
IP

Increased tool wear

TH

Requires specialized tools and techniques

Requires skilled labour
PA

High operational costs

L

2.5 Nano machining

A

Nano machining is a modern machining process used to create extremely small

K

and precise features with dimensions in the range of nanometers. This level of precision
is essential in products where atomic-level accuracy is required.

Working principle
Machining operations: It involves the following:
 Focused Ion Beam (FIB) Machining: It uses a focused beam of ions to remove
material from the workpiece.
 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) Nanomachining: It uses a sharp tip to
scratch, or remove material at the nanoscale.
 Electron Beam Lithography (EBL): It uses a focused beam of electrons to
create intricate nanoscale patterns.

Unit – II  2.5
  Laser-Based Nano Machining: Ultrafast lasers are used to remove material with
high precision.
Process control: Control systems are provided to monitor tool position, force, and
speed. Feedback mechanisms are used to maintain precision at the nanoscale.
Control systems are also provided to control temperature, humidity, and vibration.
Quality control: Nano machined components are inspected using advanced
techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM) or atomic force microscopy
(AFM).

Applications
Semiconductor: Transistors, interconnects, and other components at the
nanometer scale.
Nanotechnology: Nanostructures, nanowires, and other nanoscale devices.

M
Optics: Diffraction gratings and photonic crystals.

A
Medical devices: Nanoscale drug delivery systems, biosensors, etc.

G
Advantages PA
High precision and accuracy
IP
Exceptional surface finish
TH

Ability to machine hard materials

Customization and flexibility
PA

Integration with other technologies

Reduced material waste
L

Disadvantages
A

High initial investment.

K

High operational costs.

Slow processing speed.
Complex setup and operation.
High tool wear and maintenance.
Not suitable for larger components.

2.6 High speed machining

High-speed machining (HSM) refers to the process of machining materials at
significantly higher speeds, feeds, and cutting rates than those used in conventional
machining. It involves the use of advanced machine tools and cutting techniques to
achieve faster material removal rates, improved surface finishes, and enhanced overall
efficiency in manufacturing processes.

Unit – II  2.6
Working principle
Machine tool selection: Specialized CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machines
designed for high-speed operations are used.
Setup: The machine is programmed with high spindle speeds, ranging from 10,000
to 1,00,000 RPM. Feed rates are also set high to match the spindle speed. The depth
of cut is shallow (less than 1 mm per pass) to reduce the cutting forces and prevent
tool deflection or workpiece distortion.
Machining process: Due to the high spindle speed and feed rates, the material is
removed quickly and efficiently. The smaller depth of cut and high cutting speed
produce small chips, which are removed rapidly from the cutting zone. This
minimizes heat buildup and reduces tool wear or workpiece damage.
Cooling and lubrication: Efficient cooling system are provided to cool the tool and
workpiece and to remove chips from the cutting area. These systems may use air,

M
mist, or high-pressure coolant.

A
Process control: Adaptive control systems are provided to monitor cutting

G
conditions in real-time. These systems adjust feed rate, spindle speed, and tool
PA
position to optimize cutting performance and prevent tool breakage. Damping
IP
systems are provided to minimize vibrations due to high speeds.
Tool replacement: Due to the high speeds, a small wear on the tool can affect
TH

performance. So tools are inspected regularly and replaced more frequently.

PA

Applications
Aerospace: Turbine blades, airframe structures, and complex engine parts.
L

Automobile: Engine components, transmission parts, and moulds for plastic injection.
A
K

Mould making: Complex moulds and dies with fine details.

Medical devices: Surgical instruments, implants, and prosthetics.
Electronics: Connectors, casings, and heatsinks.

Advantages
Increased productivity.
Improved surface finish.
Improved accuracy.
Capability to machine hard materials.
Lower cutting forces.
Longer tool life.
Reduced thermal distortion.

Unit – II  2.7
Disadvantages
High equipment cost.
Complex process control.
Limited depth of cut.
Increased tool wear.
Complex machine maintenance.

2.7 Hot machining

Hot machining is a specialized manufacturing process where heat is applied to a
workpiece before or during machining to soften the material, making it easier to cut. This
technique is useful for machining hard materials like superalloys, ceramics, or hardened steels.

Working principle
Heat source selection: Depending on the material and machining process, a

M
suitable heat source is selected. Common methods include induction heating, laser

A
heating, flame heating, or plasma arc heating.

G
Setup: The workpiece is securely mounted on the machine tool. The heating device
is positioned relative to the workpiece.
PA
IP
Heating the workpiece: The heat source is activated, and heat is applied to the
workpiece. The temperature is carefully controlled to ensure the workpiece reaches
TH

the desired level of softness without causing damage.

PA

Machining process: Once the workpiece is heated, the cutting tool removes
material from the workpiece. The softened state of the material leads to smoother
cuts, reduced tool wear, and improved surface finish.
L
A

Process control: Temperature, cutting speed, and tool wear are monitored to
K

ensure consistent quality. Feedback loops are provided to automatically adjust

heating and machining parameters based on real-time data.
Cooling: After machining, the workpiece is allowed to cool naturally or through
forced cooling methods.

Applications
Aerospace: Turbine blades, engine parts, and structural components.
Automobile: Gears, shafts, bearings, brake discs and drums.
Power generation: Components for gas turbines, steam turbines and reactor cores.
Tool and die: Cutting tools, moulds and dies made from ceramics and carbides.
Biomedical: Orthopedic implants and dental prosthetics.

Unit – II  2.8
Advantages
Reduced cutting forces.
Improved surface finish.
Extended tool life.
Improved machinability of hard materials.
Less vibration and chatter.
Reduced risk of tool breakage.

Disadvantages
Requires additional equipment and setup.
More energy consumption.
Thermal distortion of material
Requires additional process control.

M
Increased operational cost.

A
2.8 Super finishing process

G
PA
Superfinishing is a high-precision manufacturing process used to improve the
surface finish and dimensional accuracy of components. It is particularly used for finishing
IP
moving parts such as bearings, shafts, and gears. The commonly used superfinishing
processes include the following:
TH

1) Honing 2) Lapping 3) Burnishing 4) Polishing 5) Buffing

PA

2.9 Honing
Honing is a precision machining process used to improve the surface finish and
L
A

dimensional accuracy of internal cylindrical surfaces. Honing machines are used for this
K

process. Two types of honing machines are:

Horizontal honing machine: The honing head moves horizontally.
Vertical honing machine: The honing head moves vertically.

Components
Honing tool: It consists of a set of abrasive stones.
Honing head: It holds the abrasive stones. It expands and contracts to apply the
necessary pressure against the bore surface.
Spindle: It rotates the honing head.
Reciprocating mechanism: This mechanism moves the honing head in and out of
the bore.

Unit – II  2.9
 Lubrication system: Honing machines use a coolant or honing oil to lubricate the
process, remove debris, and cool the workpiece. The coolant system typically
includes a pump, filter, and reservoir.
Workpiece holder: It secures the workpiece in place during the honing process.

Spindle

Universal joints

Honing tool
Workpiece
Abrasive stones

Workpiece
holder

M
A
Work table

G
PA
Fig.2.1 Honing
Working principle
IP
Tool selection: Suitable honing tool is selected and fitted on the honing head.
TH

Workpiece setup: The workpiece is secured in the honing machine. The tool is
aligned with the bore to be finished.
PA

Honing: The honing tool is rotated and reciprocated inside the bore. The abrasive
stones are pressed against the bore surface. The oscillating movement of the tool
L

creates a cross-hatch pattern on the surface.

A

Lubrication: A honing oil or coolant is used during the process to remove debris,
K

reduce heat, and ensure a smooth finish.

Applications
Automobile: Finishing engine cylinders, transmission components, etc.
Hydraulic and pneumatic cylinders: Finishing surfaces of seals and pistons.
Aerospace: Finishing landing gear and hydraulic actuators.
Medical devices: Finishing implants and surgical instruments.

Advantages
Improved surface finish.
Improved dimensional accuracy.
Reduced heat and stress.
Can be used on a wide range of materials.
Unit – II  2.10
Disadvantages
Time consuming process.
Complexity in setup and operation.
Requires skilled operators.
Hing cost of equipment.
Requires coolants and lubricants.

2.10 Lapping
Lapping is a precision finishing process used to produce extremely smooth and flat
surfaces with very tight tolerances. It involves the rubbing of two surfaces together with an
abrasive material (lapping compound) between them. The process is used for parts that
require high precision. The types of a lapping are:
1) Hand lapping 2) Machine lapping

M
3) Single-sided lapping 4) Double-sided lapping

A
G
Pressure

PA
IP

Retaining
TH

ring Pressure plate

Abrasive
PA
L

Workpieces
Lapping plate
A
K

Fig.2.2 Lapping

Components
Lapping plate: It is a flat, rotating surface that holds the abrasive compound and
the workpieces during the lapping process. It is made of cast iron, ceramic, or other
durable materials.
Abrasive compound dispenser: It dispenses the abrasive compound (such as
diamond, aluminum oxide, or silicon carbide) onto the lapping plate. The abrasive
compound can be in the form of a slurry, paste, or powder suspended in a liquid
medium.
Workpiece holder: It holds the workpieces in place on the lapping plate.

Unit – II  2.11
 Drive system: It consists of the motor and transmission that rotate the lapping plate.
Pressure system: Pressure system applies uniform pressure to the workpieces
during the lapping process.
Coolant system: It removes heat generated during the process. It also cleans the
workpieces by removing debris and excess abrasive compound.

Working principle
Preparation: The workpiece is cleaned and prepared. The lapping plate is charged
with the suitable abrasive compound.
Lapping: The workpiece is placed on the lapping plate. The plate is set in motion.
The abrasive compound between the workpiece and the plate gradually removes
material. It produces a smooth and flat surface.

M
Inspection: The workpiece is inspected for flatness, surface finish, and dimensional

A
accuracy. Additional lapping may be done if necessary to achieve the desired

G
specifications.
PA
Cleaning: After lapping, the workpiece is thoroughly cleaned to remove any
remaining abrasive particles.
IP
TH

Applications
Lenses, mirrors, and prisms
PA

Silicon wafers for integrated circuits.

Leak-proof seals in pumps, compressors, and other equipment.
Engine components, gears, etc.
L
A

Fuel injectors, hydraulic valves, and bearing surfaces.

K

Advantages
High precision and accuracy
Superior surface finish
Wide variety of materials can be processed
Uniform material removal
Reduces surface stress

Disadvantages
High cost
Time consuming process
Requires skilled operator
Abrasive contamination

Unit – II  2.12
2.11 Burnishing
Burnishing is a process that involves polishing or rubbing a surface to achieve a
smooth and shiny finish. Material is not removed in this process. This technique is used in
metalworking, leather crafting and woodworking. The types of burnishing machines are:
Roller burnishing machine: It uses rollers to apply pressure on work piece surface.
Ball burnishing machine: It uses rotating balls to apply pressure on work piece
surface.
Tool holder

Hydraulic
Fluid

Feed

M
Burnishing ball

A
Workpiece

G
PA
Fig.2.3 Burnishing
Components
IP
Base: It provides structural support for the entire machine.
TH

Burnishing head: It is equipped with rollers or balls that apply pressure to the
surface of the workpiece. These elements roll over the material, compressing and
PA

smoothing it.
Motor: It powers the burnishing machine, driving the movement of the burnishing
L

head and rollers.

A

Pressure control system: it controls the amount of pressure applied by the

K

burnishing head onto the workpiece.

Workpiece holder: The workpiece is often held in place by chucks or clamps.
Lubrication system: It is used to reduce friction and heat during the process.

Working principle
Setup and preparation: The workpiece is securely mounted. Suitable burnishing
tool is selected and fitted in the tool holder.
Application of pressure: The burnishing tool is brought into contact with the
workpiece surface. Controlled pressure is applied to the surface.

Unit – II  2.13
 Tool movement: The burnishing head rotates while pressing against the workpiece.
The workpiece may also rotate in cylindrical burnishing. The tool moves linearly or
in an oscillatory pattern.
Finishing: The pressure and movement cause the surface layer of the material to
undergo plastic deformation. The surface is compressed, flattened, and smoothed.
As the tool moves over the surface, it removes microscopic surface irregularities,
reducing surface roughness and creating a uniform finish.

Applications
Finishing metal components like shafts, gears, bearings, and hydraulic cylinders.
Finishing leather goods such as belts, wallets, and bags.
Finishing wooden products.
Finishing ceramic pieces in pottery.

M
Finishing coins and medals.

A
G
Advantages
Improved surface finish. PA
Increased surface hardness.
IP

Improved fatigue and wear resistance.

TH

No material removal.
PA

Lower operational costs.

Improved visual appearance.
L

Disadvantages
A

Requires a pre-finished surface.

K

Over-hardening of surface.
Requires precise control of pressure and speed.
Not suitable for complex geometries.
High tool wear.

2.12 Polishing
Polishing is the process of refining and smoothing a surface to improve its
appearance and functional properties. It involves the use of abrasives to remove fine layers
of material and to eliminate scratches, imperfections, etc. It is used to achieve a smooth,
shiny, and reflective finish on a wide range of materials.

Unit – II  2.14
The types of polishing machines are:
1) Rotary polisher: It has a single rotating head that spins on a fixed axis.
2) Dual-action polisher: Combines a rotating and oscillating motion.
3) Orbital polisher: The pad moves in a circular motion.
4) Bench polisher: A stationary machine with polishing wheels mounted on either side
of the motor.
5) Belt polisher: Uses a continuous loop of abrasive material (belt) that runs over
pulleys.
6) Vibratory polisher: Uses vibratory motion to polish multiple small parts
simultaneously in a container filled with polishing media.

Pressure

M
Pressue pad

A
Workpiece Abrasive slurry

G
PA
IP
Polishing pad
TH

Fig.2.4 Polishing
Components
PA

Motor: Powers the machine.

Polishing Pads/Wheels: Different types of pads or wheels are used depending on
L

the material and the level of polishing required. They are made of felt, wool, or
A

synthetic materials.
K

Speed control: Allows precise adjustment of speed.

Handle: Provides grip and control.
Pressure pad: Applies pressure.
Housing: It houses the motor and other internal components.

Working principle
Preparation: The surface is cleaned to remove any dirt or debris.
Pad attachment: Suitable polishing pad or wheel is attached to the machine.
Applying polish/compound: A small amount of polish or compound is applied to
the pad or surface. It consists of abrasive particles.

Unit – II  2.15
 Polishing: Polishing is started with a lower speed setting and gradually increased.
The machine is moved over the surface in overlapping passes, applying even
pressure. Checking is done periodically to avoid overheating or damaging the
surface.
Cleaning and inspection: After polishing, the surface is cleaned to remove any
remaining polishing compounds or debris. The surface is inspected for any
remaining imperfections or unevenness. If necessary, the polishing process may be
repeated.

Applications
Automobile: Polishing trim, wheels, and exhaust tips.
Jewelry: Polishing gold, silver, platinum, gemstones, etc.
Tool and die making: Polishing tools and dies.

M
Aerospace: Polishing turbine blades, engine parts, and airframe components.

A
Construction: Polishing marble, granite, terrazzo, concrete, glass, etc.

G
Optics: Polishing optical lenses, mirrors and reflectors
PA
Sculpture: Polishing metal and stone sculptures.
IP

Advantages
TH

Improved visual appearance.

Increased durability.
PA

Improved performance.
Improved mechanical properties.
L

Improved reflectivity.
A
K

Disadvantages
Time consuming process.
Over-polishing can lead to dimensional changes.
Risk of damage.
High energy consumption.
High equipment cost.
Increased labour cost.

2.13 Buffing
Buffing is a surface finishing process used to smooth and improve the appearance
of a material by using a soft wheel, called a buff. The process involves the removal of fine
scratches, imperfections, and minor surface irregularities. Buffing is the final step after
polishing to achieve the desired level of shine and smoothness.

Unit – II  2.16
Types of buffing machines
1) Bench buffing machines: Designed to sit on a workbench.
2) Floor buffing machines: Standalone machines mounted on the floor.
3) Portable buffing machines: Can be used for on-site work.
4) Dual-action buffing machines: Combines rotary and orbital motions.

ON/OFF
switch
Adjustable
gaurds

Fixed gaurd

Buffing wheel

M
A
G
Air vents

PA
IP

Fig.2.5 Buffing
TH

Components
Buffing wheel: Made of layers of soft material like cotton, wool, felt, or synthetic fibers.
PA

Motor: Powers the rotation of the buffing wheel.

Spindle/Arbor: It is the shaft where the buffing wheel is mounted.
L
A

Base: The machine is mounted on a heavy base to prevent vibration.

K

Safety guards: Protect the operator from debris or compound splatter.

Cooling system: Includes air vents or fans, to prevent overheating of the workpiece
and the machine.

Working principle
Setup: Suitable buffing wheel is selected and mounted on the spindle. A buffing
compound, which contains fine abrasive particles, is applied to the buffing wheel.
Operation: The buffing wheel is rotated at suitable high speed. The workpiece is
positioned against the rotating buffing wheel. Light to moderate pressure is applied
to the workpiece.

Unit – II  2.17
 Buffing process: The rotating wheel, combined with the abrasive compound,
removes a thin layer of material. As the material is gradually removed, the surface
becomes smoother and shinier. The workpiece is continuously moved to avoid
overheating and to ensure a uniform finish.
Inspection: After buffing, the workpiece is inspected for any remaining
imperfections. If necessary, rebuffing is done to achieve the desired finish.
Cleaning: After buffing, the surface is cleaned to remove any remaining buffing
compounds.

Applications
Jewelry: Buffing gold, silver, and platinum.
Automobile: Buffing bumpers, exhaust tips, and wheels.
Woodworking: Buffing wooden furniture and musical Instruments

M
Optics: Buffing lenses, mirrors, reflectors, and prisms.

A
Medical devices: Buffing surgical instruments, implants, etc.

G
Aerospace: Buffing turbine blades, engine parts, and airframe components.
PA
Household items: Buffing stainless steel pots, pans, and other cookware.
IP

Advantages
TH

High quality finish

Improved visual appearance of a product.
PA

Improved mechanical properties

Improved durability
L
A

Quick and effective process.

K

Disadvantages
Requires high skill and experience.
Not suitable for hard materials.
Over buffing can lead to dimensional changes.
Buffing generates fine dust and particles.
High wear and maintenance.

2.14 Surface treatment processes

Surface treatment processes involve various methods to modify the surface of a
material to beautify its appearance, improve its durability, or provide specific properties
such as corrosion resistance, wear resistance, or electrical conductivity.

Unit – II  2.18
The common surface treatment processes include the following:
Surface hardening
Shot peening
Galvanizing
Powder coating
Thermal spraying
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)
Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD)
Sputtering
Electroplating
Cladding
Hot dipping

M
Painting

A
G
2.15 Surface hardening
PA
Surface hardening is a group of processes used to increase the hardness of the
outer layer of a material, while maintaining a softer core. This combination of a hard surface
IP
and a tough core is desirable in components that are subject to high wear and fatigue stress.
TH

Common surface hardening techniques

1) Carburizing
PA

The metal part is heated in a carbon-rich environment (in a gas or liquid medium)
at high temperatures. The surface absorbs carbon. The heated metal part is then rapidly
L

cooled by dipping in a quenching medium such as water, oil, or brine solution. The high
A

carbon content increases the surface hardness of the part after quenching.
K

Applications: Used for low-carbon steels to create a hard, wear-resistant outer

layer while keeping the core tough and ductile.
Advantages: Provides excellent wear resistance and fatigue strength.

2) Nitriding
The surface of the metal is infused with nitrogen by heating it in a nitrogen-rich
environment, at temperatures between 500-550°C. This forms a hard nitride layer on the
surface.
Applications: Often used for alloy steels, tool steels, and other high-strength
materials.
Advantages: Produces a very hard, wear-resistant surface without the need for
quenching.

Unit – II  2.19
3) Induction hardening
The metal surface is heated rapidly using electromagnetic induction, followed by
rapid cooling (quenching). The process selectively hardens the surface layer.
Applications: Commonly used for gears, shafts, and other parts where precise
control of the hardened layer is required.
Advantages: Provides a controlled depth of hardening, minimal distortion, and the
ability to selectively harden specific areas of a component.

4) Flame hardening
The surface is heated using a high-temperature flame, followed by rapid cooling.
Applications: Used for large components like machine tool ways, rail tracks, and
heavy-duty gears.
Advantages: Allows hardening of large surfaces and components that may not be

M
suitable for other hardening methods.

A
5) Laser hardening

G
A high-power laser beam is used to heat the surface of the material, followed by self-
PA
quenching. The laser provides precise control over the area being hardened.
Applications: Used for components that require localized hardening, such as
IP

cutting tools, engine parts, and moulds.

TH

Advantages: Provides precise control, minimal distortion, and the ability to harden
complex shapes.
PA

6) Plasma nitriding
L

It is similar to nitriding, but the nitrogen is introduced in a plasma state. It allows lower
A

processing temperatures and better control over the depth and uniformity of the hard layer.
K

Applications: Used for high-performance parts in aerospace, Automobile, and

tooling industries.
Advantages: Offers improved wear resistance, fatigue strength, and corrosion
resistance with minimal distortion.

7) Carbonitriding
It is a hybrid process of carburizing and nitriding. Both carbon and nitrogen are diffused
into the surface of the steel part at relatively low temperatures, followed by quenching.
Applications: Used for parts like fasteners, bolts, and Automobile components that
require a hard surface and tough core.
Advantages: Improves wear resistance and fatigue strength, with a deeper
hardened layer than nitriding.

Unit – II  2.20
2.16 Shot peening
Shot peening is a surface treatment process used to improve the fatigue strength
and stress resistance of metal components. It involves bombarding the surface of a
workpiece with small spherical media (shots) at high velocity, inducing compressive
residual stresses on the surface layer.
Compressed air
+ Shots
Ventilation duct

Peening
chamber

Nozzle

Shots

M
Workpiece
Turn table

A
G
PA
Fig.2.6 Shot peening
IP
Components
Blasting system: Air nozzles or centrifugal wheels are used to accelerate the shot
TH

media towards the workpiece.

PA

Shot media: It includes steel, glass, or ceramic beads. The size, shape, and material
of the shots are selected based on the desired surface characteristics.
L

Workpiece handling system: It includes rotary tables, conveyor belts or robotic arms.
A

Media recycling system: After impacting the workpiece, this system collects the
K

shots and recycle back into the system.

Dust collection system: It is integrated into the machine to maintain a clean
working environment and protect operators.

Working principle
Preparation: The surface of the workpiece is cleaned to remove any dirt, oil, rust,
or scale. Suitable shot media is selected.
Peening process: Shots are propelled towards the workpiece surface using air
blasting, centrifugal wheel blasting or robotic peening. The workpiece is peened until
the entire surface has been uniformly impacted by the shots.

Unit – II  2.21
 Stress induction: As each shot impacts the surface, it creates a small indentation
by plastically deforming the surface layer of the material. The repeated impacts
create compressive residual stresses in the surface layer. These stresses oppose
tensile stresses and prevent fatigue cracks.
Cleaning: After peening, the workpiece is cleaned to remove any residual shot
media, dust, or debris.

Applications
Aerospace: Turbine blades, landing gear, and structural components.
Automobile: Gears, springs, and connecting rods.
Energy sector: gas and wind turbine components, oil and gas drilling equipment,
and other high-stress applications.
Medical devices: Implants and surgical instruments.

M
A
Advantages

G
Improved fatigue life.
Increased resistance to cracking.
Improved wear resistance.
PA
IP
Reduced surface flaws.
Consistent quality.
TH

Increased productivity.
PA

Disadvantages
Increased surface roughness.
L

Requires precise control over the process parameters.

A

Generates dust and debris.

K

Requires additional finishing process.

High operational cost.

2.17 Galvanizing
Galvanizing is a process used to protect metal, particularly steel or iron, from
corrosion by coating it with a layer of zinc. The two methods of galvanizing are:
Hot-dip galvanizing: The metal is submerged in molten zinc, which forms a
strong, durable coating. This method is used for large structures like steel beams,
poles, and outdoor equipment.
Electro-galvanizing: A thinner layer of zinc is applied using an electrochemical
process. This method is used for smaller items, like screws and bolts, where a
thinner coating is sufficient.

Unit – II  2.22
 Steel Galvanized
product product

Degreasing Acidic Flux Molten Quenching

Solution Solution Solution Zinc Media

Degreasing Pickling Fluxing Galvanizing Cooling

Fig.2.7 Galvanizing
Working principle
Degreasing: The steel is immersed in a degreasing solution to remove oil, grease,
and dirt.
Pickling: The steel is then submerged in an acidic solution to remove rust, mill
scale, and other oxides.
Fluxing: Then the steel is dipped in a flux solution to remove any remaining oxides

M
and to prevent oxidation before galvanizing.

A
Galvanizing: The cleaned steel is immersed in a bath of molten zinc at a

G
temperature of around 450°C. The steel is left in the bath until it reaches the same
PA
temperature as the molten zinc. It allows the zinc to react with the steel to form a
IP
series of zinc-iron alloy layers. As the steel is withdrawn from the bath, the zinc
coating begins to solidify. The outer layer is almost pure zinc, while the inner layers
TH

are zinc-iron alloys. The thickness of the coating depends on the composition of the
steel, the time it spends in the bath, and the speed at which it is withdrawn.
PA

Cooling: After galvanizing, the steel is cooled, by immersion in a quench tank filled
with water or by air cooling. This helps to solidify the coating and reduce the risk of
L

damage.
A
K

Applications
Construction: Beams, columns and frames used in buildings, bridges, etc.
Automobile: Car body panels, exhaust systems, nuts, bolts, etc.
Agriculture: Fencing, gates, and livestock enclosures.
Energy: Power transmission towers, poles, substations, solar panel frames, etc.
Household: Parts in washing machines and refrigerators, outdoor furniture, etc.
Industries: Storage racks, shelves, conveyor systems, etc.

Advantages
Protection against rust and corrosion.
More durability.
Low maintenance.

Unit – II  2.23
 No need for additional coatings.
Quick process.
Improved performance.
Bright and shiny appearance.

Disadvantages
High initial cost.
Size and shape limitations.
Risk of deformation.
Usage of harmful chemicals.
Difficulty in welding and repairs.

2.18 Powder coating

Powder coating is a dry finishing process that applies a protective and decorative

M
coating to metal and other materials. It involves the application of a powder made from finely

A
ground particles of pigment and resin. Then it is cured under heat to form a durable finish.

G
Electrostatic
spray gun
PA
Charged powder
particles
Coating
IP
TH

Nozzle
PA

Object

Powder feed line

Power
L

cable
A
K

Fig.2.8 Powder coating

Working principle
Cleaning: The surface of the object is cleaned to remove dirt, oil, grease, and any
other contaminants. It includes the following:
 Degreasing: Removing oils and grease from the surface using solvents or
chemical cleaners.
 Sandblasting: Abrasive blasting is used to remove rust, scale, and old coatings.
 Chemical etching: Acid or alkaline solution is used to etch the surface.
Rinsing and drying: After cleaning, the part is rinsed with water and thoroughly dried.

Unit – II  2.24
 Powder application: The powder particles are given an electrostatic charge using
a spray gun. The object to be coated is earthed. It creates an electrostatic attraction
between the charged powder and the surface of the object. The charged powder is
sprayed onto the surface of the object. The powder adheres to the surface due to
the electrostatic forces.
Curing: The coated object is placed in an oven and heated to a temperature
between 150°C to 200°C. The heat causes the powder particles to melt and flow
together. It forms a continuous film that covers the surface of the object.
Cooling: The object is removed from the oven and allowed to cool. The cooling
process solidifies the coating into a hard, durable finish.

Applications
Automobile: Wheels, rims, chassis, frames, engine parts, etc.

M
Construction: Window frames, door frames, curtain walls, gates, etc.

A
Consumer goods: Refrigerators, washing machines, dryers, ovens, outdoor

G
furniture, lighting fixtures, etc.
PA
Industry: Industrial machinery, conveyor systems, toolboxes, cabinets, pipes,
valves, and fittings.
IP

Electronics: Control boxes, electronic housings, heat sinks, etc.

TH

Sports: Bicycle frames, motorcycle parts, gym equipment, etc.

PA

Furniture: Desks, chairs, filing cabinets, and shelves.

Transportation: Components of bus, train, aircraft, boats, ships, etc.
L

Advantages
A

High resistant to wear and tear.

K

More corrosion resistance.

Wide range of colours and finishes.
Smooth and uniform finish.
Quick process.
Non-flammable.
Disadvantages
High equipment costs.
Difficulty with thin coatings.
High temperature is needed.
High energy consumption.
Difficult to repair.
Coating complex shapes is difficult.

Unit – II  2.25
2.19 Thermal spraying
Thermal spraying is a coating process used to apply a molten or heated material
onto a surface by spraying. The purpose of this process is to improve the surface
properties of the workpiece.

Powder Coating

Flame
Carrier Nozzle
gas

Fuel gas

M
Workpiece

A
G
Fig.2.9 Thermal spraying

Types
PA
IP
1) Flame spraying: Uses a flame produced by burning a fuel gas (like acetylene) to
melt the coating material.
TH

2) Plasma spraying: Involves a plasma torch that generates extremely high

PA

temperatures.
3) HVOF (High-Velocity Oxy-Fuel) spraying: Uses the combustion of oxygen and
fuel to produce a high-velocity flame.
L
A

4) Arc spraying: Uses an electric arc to melt the wire feedstock.

K

Components
Heat source: Provides heat to melt the coating material. It includes plasma torch,
combustion flame or electric arc.
Spraying gun: It houses the heat source and directs the molten material towards
the workpiece.
Feeder: Supplies the powder into the spraying gun at a controlled rate.
Gas supply: Supplies fuel gas and carrier gas in to the heat source.
Control system: Controls temperature, feed rate, and spraying speed.
Exhaust system: Removes fumes, dust, and excess heat.

Unit – II  2.26
Working principle
Preparation: The coating material (metal, ceramic, or polymer) is prepared in
powder form.
Melting: The material is heated to a molten or semi-molten state using a heat
source.
Spraying: The molten material is accelerated towards the workpiece by a high-
velocity stream of gas or air.
Coating formation: The particles flatten and rapidly cool after impacting the surface.
It forms a dense, adherent coating.

Applications
Aerospace: Coating turbine blades, landing gear, etc.
Automobile: Coating engine components, exhaust systems, brake discs, etc.

M
Oil and gas industry: Coating pipelines and valves

A
Power generation: Coating boiler tubes, gas turbine components, etc.

G
Machinery: Coating rolls, cylinders, pumps, impellers, etc.
PA
Medical: Coating biomedical implants, surgical instruments, etc.
Too and die: Coating moulds, dies, tools, etc.
IP
TH

Advantages
Improved surface properties
PA

Precise control of coating thickness

Extended life of component
Minimal distortion
L
A

Quick process
K

Reduced waste

Disadvantages
Requires pre-treatment
Defects such as cracks, un-melted particles, or uneven coatings.
High initial investment
Requires skilled operators
Dust and fume generation

2.20 Vapour deposition process

Vapour deposition processes are techniques used to deposit thin films of materials
onto various substrates in a controlled manner. The two types are:
1) Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) 2) Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD)

Unit – II  2.27
2.20.1 Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) is a widely used method for creating high-
quality, solid thin films on a workpiece through chemical reactions in the vapour phase.
CVD involves the reaction of volatile precursor gases in a chamber. These gases
decompose or react on a heated workpiece to form a thin solid film.
Precursor
gases
Heater
Reaction chamber

Exhaust

Workpiece holder

Workpiece

M
Fig.2.10 Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)

A
Components

G
Reaction chamber: Chamber where chemical reactions take place.
PA
Workpiece holder (Susceptor): Supports the workpiece during the deposition
process.
IP

Gas delivery system: Delivers the precursor gases and carrier gases into the
TH

reaction chamber.
Heaters: Heats the workpiece and the gases.
PA

Exhaust system: Removes excess gases and reaction byproducts

Control system: Controls temperature, pressure, and gas flow.
L
A

Working principle
K

Precursor gas supply: Gaseous reactants (precursors) are introduced into a

reaction chamber.
Transport: These gases are transported to the heated workpiece surface through
diffusion or convection.
Reaction: The precursor gases undergo chemical reactions or decompose with the
heated workpiece. It forms a solid material on the workpiece surface.
Byproduct removal: Volatile byproducts from the reaction are removed from the
chamber through an exhaust system.
Applications
Semiconductor devices: Depositing dielectric layers, gate oxides, and barrier layers.
Optical coatings: Anti-reflective coatings and protective layers on lenses.
Nanotechnology: Growth of carbon nanotubes, graphene, and other nanomaterials.
Unit – II  2.28
Advantages
High purity and quality of films.
Can cover complex geometries uniformly.
Can deposit a wide range of materials.
Suitable for mass production.
Precise control over film thickness.
Strong adhesion.

Disadvantages
High temperature requirements.
Complexity of equipment.
Hazardous precursors.
Lower deposition rate.

M
Requires vacuum and high pressure.

A
2.20.2 Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD)

G
PA
Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) is a process used to deposit thin films or
coatings onto a workpiece surface through the physical transfer of material from a solid or
IP
liquid source. It involves physical processes such as evaporation, sputtering, or arc
discharge to vapourize the material.
TH

Workpiece
holder
PA

Workpiece Coating
L

Vapourized
A

Vacuum particles
chamber
K

Exhaust
Material
source
Target
Heater

Fig.2.11 Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD)

Components
Vacuum chamber: It is designed to maintain a high-vacuum environment.
Target (Material source): The raw material to be deposited onto the workpiece
surface.

Unit – II  2.29
 Power supply: Heats and evaporates the target material.
Workpiece holder: Supports the workpiece.
Vacuum pump system: Creates and maintains high-vacuum environment.
Control system: Controls temperature and pressure.
Exhaust system: Removes volatile byproducts from the chamber.

Working principle
Preparation: A solid material (the target) that is to be deposited onto the workpiece
is placed in the PVD chamber. The material can be a metal, alloy, or compound.
Evaporation: The source material is heated to its boiling point in a high vacuum.
The atoms or molecules vapourise and travel towards the workpiece.
Condensation: The vapourised material condenses on the cooler workpiece

M
surface. It forms a thin film. The microstructure and properties of the film can be
controlled by temperature, pressure, and deposition rate.

A
G
Applications
PA
Electronics: Depositing thin films in integrated circuits.
IP
Optics: Applying anti-reflective coatings, mirrors, and filters.
Tooling: Applying hard wear-resistant coatings on cutting tools and dies.
TH

Decorative coatings: Applying decorative coatings on watches, jewelry, etc.

Surface engineering: Improving surface properties of components in aerospace,
PA

medical devices, and automobiles.

L

Advantages
A

Superior surface finish

K

High purity
Customizable coating thickness
Strong adhesion
No hazardous chemicals
High durability
Ability to coat complex shapes
Improved performance of coated parts

Disadvantages
High initial and operational costs
Low deposition rates
Need of high vacuum.
Not suitable for all coating needs

Unit – II  2.30
2.20.3 Sputtering
Sputtering is a type of Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) technique used to deposit
thin films on a workpiece surface by discharging material from a solid target through the
bombardment of high-energy ions. The ejected material then condenses on the workpiece
surface to form a thin film.

Gas inlet Plasma

generator
Target

Particles

Vacuum Power
chamber supply

M
Coating Exhaust

A
Workpiece

G
PA
IP
Fig.2.12 Sputtering
TH

Components
Vacuum chamber: It is designed to maintain a high-vacuum environment.
PA

Material source (Target): The raw material to be deposited onto the workpiece surface.
Power supply: Provides the necessary voltage and current to create a plasma and
L

maintain the sputtering process.

A

Workpiece holder: Supports the workpiece.

K

Vacuum pump system: Creates and maintains high-vacuum environment.

Gas supply system: Supplies sputtering gases or reactive gases.
Plasma generator: Creates a plasma by ionizing the sputtering gas.
Control system: Controls temperature, pressure, and gas flow.
Exhaust system: Removes unreacted gases and volatile byproducts from the
chamber.

Working principle
Preparation: The target material is placed in the chamber. This target is bombarded
with high-energy ions, usually from an inert gas like argon.
Plasma generation: A plasma is created within the chamber by applying a voltage.
The plasma consists of positively charged ions and free electrons.

Unit – II  2.31
 Ion bombardment: The positively charged ions from the plasma are accelerated
towards the negatively charged target. When these ions strike the target surface,
they eject atoms or molecules from the target material.
Deposition: The ejected atoms or molecules (sputtered particles) travel through the
vacuum and deposit onto the workpiece surface. It forms a thin film.

Applications
Electronics: Depositing thin films in integrated circuits.
Optics: Applying anti-reflective coatings, mirrors, and filters.
Tooling: Applying hard wear-resistant coatings on cutting tools and dies.
Decorative coatings: Applying decorative coatings on watches, jewelry, etc.
Surface engineering: Improving surface properties of components in aerospace,
medical devices, and automobiles.

M
A
Advantages

G
High film quality
Precise thickness control
Strong adhesion
PA
IP
No hazardous chemicals
High durability
TH

Ability to coat complex shapes

Improved performance of coated parts
PA

Disadvantages
L

High initial and operational costs

A

Low deposition rates

K

Need of high vacuum.

Risk of gas handling

2.21 Electroplating
Electroplating is a process that uses electrical current to deposit a thin layer of
metal onto the surface of an object. This technique is commonly used to improve corrosion
resistance, reduce friction, enhance appearance, or increase thickness of the surface.

Components
Anode: It is the plating material such as copper, nickel, or gold.
Cathode: It is the object to be plated.
Electrolyte solution: It contains the metal ions to be deposited. For example,
copper sulphate is used as electrolyte to deposit copper on the object.

Unit – II  2.32
 Power supply: It provides the necessary electrical current to drive the electroplating
process.
Electroplating tank: It holds the electrolyte solution and the components to be plated.

Power supply

Plating material Anode

Cathode Object to
be coated

Electrolyte

M
A
Fig.2.13 Electrolytic deposition

G
Working principle
PA
Surface preparation: The object to be electroplated is thoroughly cleaned to
remove any dirt, grease, or oxide layers. This can involve mechanical cleaning, acid
IP
cleaning, or other methods.
TH

Bath preparation: The object is immersed in an electrolyte solution (plating bath)

that contains the metal ions to be deposited.
PA

Electroplating: The object is connected to the negative terminal (cathode) of a

power supply. The metal to be plated (anode) is connected to the positive terminal.
L

When an electric current is applied, the anode gradually dissolves and releases
A

metal ions into the electrolyte solution. Then the metal ions in the electrolyte are
K

reduced at the cathode and forms a thin metal layer on the object.

Applications
Jewelry: Gold plating and silver plating of jewelry and decorative items.
Automobile: Chrome plating of bumpers, wheels, and trim.
Electronics: Copper plating of printed circuit boards.
Aerospace: Nickel and chrome plating of various parts.
Medical devices: Gold, silver and nickel plating of medical devices.
Coins: Copper and nickel plating of coins.
Food Industry: Tin plating of food processing equipment and containers.

Unit – II  2.33
Advantages
Increased corrosion resistance.
Improved visual appearance.
Increased durability
Improved electrical conductivity
Reduced friction
Customizable properties

Disadvantages
Use of toxic chemicals and heavy metals.
Waste disposal is difficult.
Cannot produce thick layers.
Achieving uniform coating is difficult.

M
Poor adhesion.

A
Long processing time.

G
Requires regular maintenance.

2.22 Cladding
PA
IP
Cladding is the process of covering one material with another to provide certain
functional or aesthetic benefits. It is widely used in construction, manufacturing, and
TH

engineering for various purposes, including protection, insulation, and improving the
appearance of structures or components.
PA
L

Cladding metal
A

Base
K

metal

Rolls

Fig.2.14 Metal cladding

Types of cladding
Exterior wall cladding: Covering walls with metal, wood, vinyl, stone, and
composite panels.
Roof cladding: Covering a roof with tiles, metal sheets, etc.
Metal cladding: Bonding a layer of metal onto the surface of another metal.

Unit – II  2.34
 Explosion cladding: High-energy explosions are used to bond dissimilar metals
together.
Wood cladding: Wood is used for cladding to provide a natural and warm
appearance to buildings.
Stone and brick cladding: Thin layers of stone or brick are applied to structures to
give the appearance of a solid stone or brick wall.
Ceramic and tile cladding: Used in bathrooms, kitchens, and exterior facades.

Components
Cladding panels: Provides the aesthetic finish and protection against
environmental elements like rain, wind, and UV radiation.
Substrate: The underlying structure to which the cladding is attached. It supports
the cladding system and provides the primary structural integrity of the building.

M
Fixings and fasteners: Used to attach the cladding panels to the substrate or

A
supporting framework. It includes screws, bolts, rivets, clips, and adhesives.

G
Supporting framework: Provides structural support for the cladding panels. It is
made of metal or wood. PA
Insulation layer: Improves the building’s thermal performance by reducing heat loss
IP

or gain. It includes rigid foam boards, mineral wool, or other thermal insulating
TH

materials.
Vapour barrier: Prevents moisture from penetrating the building’s interior. It is a
PA

membrane or coating that resists the passage of water vapour.

Breather membrane: Allows water vapour to escape from the building while
L

preventing external water from entering.

A

Cavity or air gap: A space between the cladding panels and the substrate or
K

insulation layer. It improves the ventilation and allows for drainage of any moisture.
Sealants and gaskets: Used to seal gaps and joints between cladding panels. It
includes Silicone, rubber, or other flexible sealing materials.
Expansion joints: Allow for thermal expansion and contraction of materials.
Backing rods: Used in conjunction with sealants to fill gaps and joints. It includes
foam or other compressible materials.

Applications
Construction: Protection against environmental elements, providing insulation and
improving visual appearance.
Manufacturing: Improving corrosion resistance, wear resistance and thermal
conductivity.

Unit – II  2.35
 Transportation: providing lightweight protection, improving aerodynamics, and
aesthetic appeal.
Energy sector: Protecting pipelines from corrosion.

Advantages
Improved protection against environmental factors
Improved durability
Reduced maintenance
Improved visual appearance
Improved insulation
Increased property value

Disadvantages
Increased cost

M
Increased fire risk

A
Complex to install

G
Requires skilled labour

2.23 Hot dipping

PA
Hot dipping is a process used for coating a base metal with a layer of another metal
IP

to improve the surface properties. This method is widely used in various industries for
TH

producing corrosion-resistant materials.

PA

Types
Hot dip galvanizing: Steel or iron is coated with zinc.
L

Hot-dip aluminizing: Aluminum is used as the coating metal

A

Hot-dip tin coating: Used for coating steel with tin to produce tinplates.
K

Steel Coated
product product

Degreasing Acidic Molten Quenching

Solution Solution metal Media

Degreasing Pickling Dipping Cooling

Fig.2.15 Hot dipping

Working principle
Cleaning: The surface of the base metal is thoroughly cleaned to remove any dirt,
rust, oil, or other contaminants.

Unit – II  2.36
 Fluxing: After cleaning, the metal is immersed in a flux solution (zinc ammonium
chloride) to prevent oxidation.
Dipping: The prepared metal is then dipped into a bath of molten zinc (or another
metal). The molten zinc reacts with the iron in the steel to form a series of zinc-iron
alloy layers on the surface.
Formation of coating: As the metal is withdrawn from the bath, the zinc solidifies
and forms a protective outer layer.
Cooling: Then the metal is allowed to cool and solidify in the air or through water
quenching. The cooling process hardens the zinc coating.

Applications
Construction: Galvanized steel beams, columns, fencing, roofing, and other
structural components.

M
Automobile: Car bodies, frames, exhaust systems, etc.

A
Utilities: Pipes, tubes, utility poles, transmission towers, etc.

G
Agriculture: Agricultural machinery, tools, and storage containers.

Advantages
PA
IP
Excellent corrosion resistance.
Long service life.
TH

Uniform coverage of coating.

Relatively inexpensive.
PA

Reduced maintenance.
L

Disadvantages
A

Dull surface finish.

K

Thickness control is difficult.

Increases weight of the component.
Not suitable for all types of materials.

2.24 Painting
Painting is the process of applying coatings to products for visual appearance and
protective purposes.

Methods of painting
1) Spray painting: Paint is sprayed onto the surface using high-pressure air. It can be
done manually or with automated spray systems.
2) Powder coating: A dry powder is electrostatically charged and sprayed onto the part.
The coated part is then heated. It causes the powder to melt and form a uniform finish.

Unit – II  2.37
 3) Dip coating: Parts are dipped into a tank of paint and then allowed to drain and dry.
This method is used for small or irregularly shaped parts.
4) Roller or brush: Paint is applied with rollers or brushes for large flat surfaces.

Paint cup

Coating

Nozzle

Paint
particles

M
Trigger Hose

A
Workpiece

G
Air inlet
PA
Fig.2.16 Spray painting
IP
Working principle
Cleaning: The surface of the product is thoroughly cleaned to remove any dirt,
TH

grease, oils, or other contaminants.

PA

Surface treatment: Depending on the material, treatments such as sandblasting,

etching, or chemical baths may be used to create a better surface for painting. This
step also includes applying a primer to improve paint adhesion and prevent
L
A

corrosion.
K

Masking: Areas that should not be painted are masked off with tape, films, or other
protective materials.
Painting: The type of paint or coating is selected based on the product's
requirements. The paint can be applied using various methods such as spray
painting, powder coating, dip coating, roller or brush coating.
Curing: After application, the paint must be dried or cured to harden the coating.
This can involve air drying or curing in an over.
Unmasking: Finally the masking materials are removed.

Applications of painting
Construction: Painting of walls, ceilings, doors, windows, trim, etc.
Automobile: Vehicle painting, restorative painting, powder coating of automobile parts.

Unit – II  2.38
 Manufacturing: Protective coating of machinery, equipment, pipelines, etc.
Transportation: Painting of components of bus, train, aircraft, boats, ships, etc.
Medical devices: Painting of medical devices and equipment.
Electronics: Protective coatings of electronic devices, and components.

Advantages
High corrosion resistance.
Weather proofing against UV radiation, rain, and temperature.
Improved visual appearance.
Affordable finishing process.
More durability.

Disadvantages

M
Paint can chip, peel, or crack over time.
Colours can fade when exposed to environmental factors.

A
Surface preparation is critical.

G
More drying and curing time.
More labour cost.
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
A
K

Unit – II  2.39
 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) What is precision machining? Explain its working principle. State its applications and
advantages.
2) Explain the working principle of ultra precision machining. Give its applications and
advantages.
3) Write short notes on micro and nano-machining.
4) Briefly explain high speed machining. State its applications.
5) What is hot machining. Explain its working principle.
6) Explain the working principle of honing with a neat sketch. Give its applications.
7) What is lapping? Explain its working with a neat sketch.
8) With a neat sketch, explain the working of burnishing process.

M
9) Briefly explain the polishing process. State its applications and advantages.

A
10) What is buffing? Explain its working principle.

G
11) Briefly explain various methods of surface hardening.
PA
12) Explain the shot peening process with a neat sketch.
IP
13) What is galvanizing? Explain its working. State its applications and advantages.
14) Explain the powder coating process with a neat sketch.
TH

15) What is thermal spraying. Explain its working principle.

PA

16) Explain the CVD process with a neat sketch. State its applications.
17) With a neat sketch, explain the PVD process. Give its applications.
L

18) What is sputtering? Explain its working principle with a neat sketch.
A

19) Explain the working principle of electroplating? Give its applications and advantages.
K

20) What is the purpose of cladding? Explain its working principle.

21) What is hot dipping? Explain its working principle with a sketch.
22) Explain any one type of painting process. Give its applications and advantages.

 

Unit – II  2.40
 Unit – III
UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES
3.1 Introduction
Some materials like titanium alloys, hast alloys, nimonic alloys, etc. cannot be
accurately machined by the conventional machining processes like turning, milling, etc.
More over, it is very difficult to produce complex shaped products from these materials
by conventional processes. So new processes are introduced for machining hard
materials easily. These are called unconventional machining processes.

3.2 Classification
Based on the energy source used for machining, the unconventional machining
processes are classified as follows :

M
1) Mechanical energy based methods : The material is removed from the work

A
piece by mechanical erosion. Example : Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), Water

G
Jet Machining (WJM), Ultrasonic Machining (USM).
PA
2) Electrical energy based methods : The material is removed from the work piece
IP
by using electrical energy. Example : Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM),
Wire cut EDM.
TH

3) Electro-chemical energy based methods : The material is removed by

PA

electrolytic dissolution of the work piece in contact with a chemical solution.

Example : Electrochemical Machining (ECM), Electrochemical Grinding (ECG).
L

4) Chemical energy based methods : The material is removed by controlled

A

etching of work piece in contact with a chemical solution. Example : Chemical

K

Machining (CHM)
5) Thermal energy based methods : The material is removed by melting and
vapourisation of work piece by concentrating the heat energy on a small area.
Example : Electron Beam Machining (EBM), Laser Beam Machining (LBM),
Plasma Arc Machining (PAM).

3.3 Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

In abrasive jet machining process, a high velocity stream of abrasive particles
carried by a compressed gas are impacted on the work piece through a nozzle. Due to
the repeated impacts, the material is removed as small chips and carried away by the
gas.

Unit – III  3.1

Construction
1) Filter : To remove water, oil and other impurities from gas.
2) Compressor : To compress the carrier gas to high pressure.
3) Mixing chamber : To mix the gas and abrasive particles.
4) Vibrating device : To control the feed rate of the the abrasive particles.
5) Regulators and pressure gauges : To control the flow rate of compressed gas
and abrasive particle mixture.
6) Nozzle : To direct the abrasive particles on the work piece with high velocity.

Air, nitrogen or CO2 can be used as carrier gas. Aluminium oxide, silicon carbide
and glass powder can be used as abrasive particles. Nozzle is made of hard material
like tungsten carbide to resist abrasion and wear. The movement of the nozzle is
controlled by a cam mechanism.

M
Abrasive

A
Filter particles

G
Mixing
Gas chamber
Hose
Compressor
PA
IP
Regulator
Abrasive jet
TH

Pressure
gauge
Nozzle
PA

Vibrating Control valve Work piece

device
Fig.3.1 Abrasive jet machining
L

Working
A

The high pressure compressed gas is entered into the mixing chamber. The fine
K

abrasive particles are fed into the mixing chamber. The mixture of compressed gas and
abrasive particles flows into the nozzle at constant speed. Nozzle increases the speed
of abrasive particles up to 300 m/s.

The high speed stream of abrasive particles strikes the work piece surface. It
creates plastic deformation or micro-cracks. Due to the repeated impacts, the material is
removed as small chips and carried away by the gas.

Applications
1) Machining of hard and brittle materials like quartz, ceramics, glass, etc.
2) Fine drilling and micro-welding.
3) Machining of semi-conductors.
4) Cleaning and polishing of hard surfaces.

Unit – III  3.2

Advantages
1) Brittle Materials of thin sections can be easily machined.
2) No direct contact between the tool and work piece.
3) No heat generation
4) Complex shapes can be easily machined.
5) Low Initial cost.
6) Low power consumption.

Disadvantages
1) Low metal removal rate.
2) Poor machining accuracy.
3) High nozzle wear rate.
4) Soft material cannot be machined.

M
5) Additional cleaning is required.

A
G
3.4 Water Jet Machining (WJM)
PA
Water Jet Machining (WJM) process is an extension of abrasive jet machining
process. In this process, high pressure and high velocity stream of water is used to cut the
IP

soft and non-metallic materials.

TH

Accumulator Regulating
chamber
PA

Control
L

valve
A

Pump or Nozzle
intensifier
K

Water jet
Work piece

Fig.3.2 Water jet machining

Construction
1) Pump or intensifier: Raises the pressure of water. The pressure ranges from
1500 to 4000 N/mm2.
2) Accumulator: Stores the water. It helps to eliminate pulsation.
3) Nozzle: Increases the velocity of the water jet. It is made up of diamond or
tungsten carbide
4) Regulating chamber: Controls the flow of water jet.

Unit – III  3.3

Working
The high pressure water from the pump enters into the accumulator. The
accumulator stores the water and eliminates pulsation. From the accumulator, water is
passed to the nozzle through a high pressure thick tube. The nozzle increases the
velocity of water jet.

The high velocity water jet strikes the work piece surface. The kinetic energy of
the jet is converted into pressure energy. It induces high stress. When this induced stress
exceeds the ultimate shear stress of the material, the material is removed as small
chips and carried away by the jet.

Application
This process is used for cutting soft and non-metallic materials like paper boards,
plastic, wood, rubber, leather, fibre glass, etc.

M
Advantages

A
1) Water is cheap, non-toxic and easy to dispose.

G
2) Low operating cost.
3) The work area is clean and dust free.
PA
IP
4) Complex shapes can be cut.
TH

5) Less heat is generated

PA

Disadvantages
1) High initial cost
2) Difficult to cut hard materials
L
A

3) Noisy operation
K

3.5 Ultrasonic machining (USM)

Construction!
! This machine has a generator with an oscillator and amplifier. The generator
converts the low frequency (50 Hz) current into very high frequency (20,000 Hz) current.
This current is supplied to the transducer through an oscillator.

The transducer has nickel laminations wound with a coil. The transducer converts
the high frequency current into mechanical vibrations. These vibrations are transmitted
to the tool through a tool holder fitted to the transducer. So the tool vibrates up and down
with an amplitude of 0.05 mm and a frequency of 20,000 Hz.

Unit – III  3.4

 Nickel lamination
Power
supply

Transducer

Tool holder
Tool
Abrasive slurry
(Water + Abrasive)

Work piece

M
Table

A
G
Fig.3.3 Ultrasonic machining

Working
PA
IP
When tool vibrates, an abrasive slurry is applied between the tool and work piece.
TH

Abrasive slurry is a mixture of abrasive particles and water. The abrasive particles are
forced on to the work piece surface due to the tool vibration.
PA

The metal is removed from the work piece as small chips by the abrasion and
erosion of abrasive particles. So a cavity is formed in the work piece according to the
L

shape of the tool. The tool is fed downwards at the rate of 0.1 mm/sec.
A
K

The tool holder is made of stainless steel. The tool is made from a ductile material
like soft steel, copper and brass. The end of the tool is formed in the shape which is to
be produced on the work piece. The abrasive particles of aluminium oxide, silicon carbide
or boron carbide having grit size 800 to 1000 can be used. The surface finish depends
on the grit size of abrasive particles.!
!
Applications
1) Producing holes in hard and brittle materials like glass, ceramics, carbides,
diamonds, etc.!
2) Making wire drawing dies in tungsten carbide or diamond.!

Unit – III  3.5

Advantages
1) Both conducting and non-conducting materials can be cut.
2) Complex shaped cavities can be accurately cut.
3) Less setting time.
4) Less skilled operator is sufficient.
5) Low production cost.
6) Low tooling cost.
7) No thermal stresses

Disadvantages
1) Machining time is more.!
2) High electric power is consumed.!
3) Low metal removal rate.!
4) High tool wear rate.!

M
!

A
3.6 Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)!

G
! In this method, the metal is removed from the work piece due to erosion. The erosion
is caused by an electric spark at high [Link]
Reduction gear box
IP

Constant
TH

tool feed
Servo motor
PA

Tool
- ve Dielectric fluid
Filter
L

D.C. Supply
A
K

+ ve Work
Table
Work pan Pump

Fig.3.4 Electrical discharge machining

Construction
The work piece is held in a fixture placed inside a work pan. The pan contains a
dielectric fluid like kerosene, mineral oil, white spirit or paraffin. The work piece is connected
to the +ve terminal of D.C. supply.

The tool is designed according to the shape to be produced on the work piece.
The hollow tool is made of copper, brass, tungsten or graphite. Dielectric fluid is supplied
through the hole in the tool. The tool is automatically fed by a servomotor to maintain a
small gap of 0.005 mm to 0.05 mm between the work piece and the tool.

Unit – III  3.6

Working
When D.C. supply is given, an electric spark is produced in the gap between the
tool and work piece. Due to this spark, a high heat of about 1200oC is developed. The
metal in a small area of work piece is melted by this heat.

Thousands of sparks are produced per second. The molten metal is splitted into
small particle and removed due to the high forces of these sparks. At the same time the
metal particles are carried away by the dielectric fluid passed with high pressure.
Dielectric fluid also acts as coolant.!
Applications
1) Producing small holes in nozzles.!
2) Machining hard and brittle materials like tungsten carbide, stellite, etc.!
3) Sharpening of tool and cutters.!

M
4) Making tungsten carbide and diamond wire drawing dies.!

A
5) Cutting off the work piece.!
!

G
Advantages !
PA
1) Small holes up to 0.1 mm diameter can be produced.!
2) All the electrically conductive material can be machined.!
IP

3) Surface finish with an accuracy of 0.2 microns can be obtained.!

TH

4) No stress is formed in the work piece.!

5) Complicated profiles can be produced.!
PA

6) Fast process.!
!
L

!Disadvantages
A

1) High electric power is required.!

K

2) Only electrically conductive materials can be machined.!

3) Square corners cannot be formed in work pieces.!
4) High tool wear rate.!

3.7 Electron Beam Machining (EBM)!

! In this method, the metal is removed from the work piece by using high velocity
electron beams.

Construction
1) Vacuum chamber : Vacuum chamber is used to avoid collision of accelerated
electrons with air molecules.
2) Electron gun : It emits electrons. It consists of tungsten filament, grid cup and
anode.

Unit – III  3.7

 3) Focusing lens : It is used to focus the electron beam at the desired location.
4) Electromagnetic deflector : It deflects the electron beam on the path of cut.

Grid cup Electron gun

Tungsten
filament
D.C power
supply
Anode
Diaphram
Vacuum
chamber
Focussing
lens

M
Deflector coil

A
Electron
beam

G
Work piece

Table
PA
IP
TH

Fig.3.5 Electron beam machining

Working
PA

When D.C. power supply is given, electrons are emitted from tungsten filament.
These electrons are directed by grid cup to pass through anode. The anode accelerates
the electrons to attain high velocity. The focusing lens focus the electron beam on the
L
A

desired spot of the work piece.

K

When the electron beam strikes the work piece surface, the kinetic energy of high
velocity electrons is converted into heat energy. This high intensity heat melts and
vapourises the work material at the spot.

Applications
1) Micro-machining operations such as drilling, slotting, perforating and scribing on
thin materials.
2) Drilling holes in nuclear reactors, air craft engine, etc.
3) Removing small broken taps from holes.
4) Manufacturing of field emission cathodes, integrated circuits and computer chips.

Unit – III  3.8

Advantages
1) Very small holes can be machined.
2) Holes of different sizes and shapes can be machined.
3) Brittle and fragile material can be machined.
4) Close tolerance can be achieved.
5) Quick process.
6) Easily automated.

Disadvantages
1) Low metal removal rate.
2) High equipment cost.
3) Vacuum is required.
4) Applicable only for thin materials.

M
5) Not suitable for large work pieces.

A
6) High skilled operator is required.

G
3.8 Laser beam machining (LBM) PA
Reflecting end
IP

Flash lamp
Ruby crystal
TH
PA

C
L
A

Laser beam
K

Lens

Work piece

Fig.3.6 Laser beam machining

! LASER is an acronym of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

It is a beam of light having same wave length. When this beam is focused by a lens on
a very small spot, that spot is melted and vapourised due to the high temperature.

The equipment has a ruby crystal. This crystal is placed inside a flash lamp coil
of 1000W. The flash lamp is filled with xenon gas. When electric supply is given, the

Unit – III  3.9

lamp gives high intensity light. Due to this light, the ruby crystal is stimulated and emits
the laser beam.

This laser beam is focused at required place on the work piece by using a lens.
Now the portion of the work piece is melted and vapourised due to the high temperature.!!
!
Applications!
1) Producing very fine and minute holes (0.005mm diameter).!
2) Producing holes in surgical needles.!
3) Producing holes in hard materials like ceramics.!
!
Advantages!
1) Machining can be done in all types of metal.!

M
2) No tool wear.!

A
3) Hole can be produced exactly at correct location.!

G
4) No force acts on the work piece!
5) PA
Holes can be produced in non-metals also.!
6) Holes can be easily produced on curved and angular surfaces.!
IP
!
Disadvantages!
TH

1) Cost of equipment is high.!

PA

2) Life of flash lamp is short.!

3) Machined holes will not be perfectly round.!
Efficiency of the process is less.!
L

4)
A

5) Large amount of metal cannot be removed.!

K

6) The equipment must be handled carefully.!

3.9 Plasma arc machining (PAM)!

! When a gas is heated to a very high temperature, it gets ionized. The ionized gas
is called plasma. Metal is removed by passing the high temperature plasma on the work
piece surface with high velocity.

Construction
A copper nozzle is fitted at the bottom of a gas chamber. The nozzle and the
chamber body are separated by an insulator. A tungsten electrode is vertically fitted in
the gas chamber. This electrode is connected to the –ve terminal and the nozzle is
connected to the +ve terminal of a D.C. supply. The work piece is also connected to the
+ve terminal.

Unit – III  3.10

 Electrode
(Cathode)

Gas chamber

H 2 or N2 gas
Power supply

Insulator

Nozzle
(Anode)

Plasma

M
A
Work piece

G
PA
Fig.3.7 Plasma arc machining
Working
IP
When D.C. supply is given, an electric spark is produced between the nozzle and
TH

electrode. Now H2, N2 or O2 gas is passed through the gas chamber at high speed.
When this gas passes through the high temperature electric spark, it gets ionized and
PA

plasma is formed. The plasma is forced on the work piece through a nozzle. The work
piece surface is melted by the high temperature of plasma. The molten metal is removed
due to the high velocity of plasma.
L

!
A

Applications !
K

1) Cutting stainless steel and aluminium alloys.!

2) Cutting required profile in hard alloy steels.!
!
Advantages !
1) Metal is cut at very fast rate.!
2) Thick materials up to 150 mm can be cut.!
3) All metals can be machined.!
!
Disadvantages !
1) Surface finish and accuracy will be less.!
2) More noise is produced in this process.!
3) The ultra violet and infra red rays released from plasma affect the human health.!
4) More electrical power is required.!
5) Costly process.!

Unit – III  3.11

3.10 Chemical machining
! Chemical machining is the process of removing metal from the required portion
of work piece by using some chemicals. It is also called as chemical milling.

Etching solution

Portion to be
machined End product

Heater

Stirrer Masking sheet

M
Fig.3.8 Chemical machining

A
Working principle

G
1) Cleaning! PA
The work piece surface is thoroughly cleaned by using solvent. Then it is washed
IP
in water and dried for some time.!
!
TH

2) Masking
Masking is the process of covering the portions of work piece which are not to be
PA

machined. The masking will be made from vinyl, neoprene or rubber sheet. First, the
entire portion of the work piece is covered with masking sheet. Then the masking sheet
L

in the portion to be machined are cut and removed. Masking is not necessary if the entire
A

portion of the work piece is to be machined.

K

!
3) Etching!
! After masking, the work piece is immersed in a hot chemical called etchant.
Different etchant is used according to the work piece material. For example, caustic soda
is used for aluminium and acids are used for steel, magnesium and titanium alloys. The
etchant converts the metal into its metal salt and dissolves the metal salt easily. Thus
the metal in the unmasked portion of the work piece is removed by chemical action and
required cavity is formed.

The rate of metal removal depends upon the concentration of etchant and
temperature. The rate of metal removal is more when the concentration and temperature
of etchant is more. The amount of metal removal depends upon the time during which
the work piece is immersed in the etchant.!

Unit – III  3.12

4) Demasking
After etching, the work piece is taken out from the etchant. Then it is cleaned
thoroughly in water and masking sheet is removed.
Applications!
1) Making curved and irregular shaped cavities.!
2) Removing less amount of metal from thin metal sheets.!
3) Producing complex shapes in electronic components, air craft parts and
automobile parts.!
Advantages
1) Machining can be done in thin sheet metals.!
2) Cavities of complicated profile can be machined.!
3) Less skilled operator is sufficient.!
4) No stress is developed during the process.!

M
5) Rate of metal removal can be easily controlled.!

A
6) Metal is uniformly removed in all surfaces.!

G
7) All the surfaces of work piece are machined at the same time.!
Disadvantages
PA
1) Very slow process.!
IP

2) Not possible to remove large amount of metal.!

TH

3) Chemical vapours are injurious to health.!

!
PA

3.11 Electro chemical machining

Electro chemical machining is the reverse process of electro plating. In electro
plating process, the work piece will be cathode (-ve). But in electro chemical machining
L
A

the work piece will be anode (+ve).

K

Constant Electrolyte flow

tool feed
Electrolyte Tool
Filter

- ve

D.C. Supply
Work
+ ve
Fixture

Base
Insulation
Pump

Fig.3.9 Electro chemical machining

Unit – III  3.13

Construction
The work piece is fitted in a fixture inside a tank. The work piece is connected to
+ve (anode) terminal of 20V D.C. supply. The hollow tool is connected to the –ve
(cathode) terminal.

The tool is designed according to the shape to be produced in the work piece.
Electrolyte is supplied with high pressure through the hole (hollow) in the tool. Generally
sodium chloride or sodium nitrate is used as electrolyte. The sides of work piece are
insulated to prevent from machining.
Working principle
When D.C. supply is given, the current will flow through the circuit. Now electrons
are released from the work piece (anode). These irons move towards the tool (cathode).
But these irons are carried away by the fast flowing electrolyte. Thus the metal from the
work piece is removed in the form of fine particles and required cavity is produced.

M
A
The tool is fed automatically to maintain a gap of 0.2 mm to 0.4 mm between the

G
tool and work piece. The rate of metal removal depends upon the amount of current
PA
passes through the circuit. The electrolyte is filtered and recirculated.!!
!
Applications!
IP

1) Making complex shapes in hard materials.!

TH

2) Gas turbine blades, impeller and air craft parts !

3) Producing blind holes, through holes and irregular shaped cavities.!
PA

4) Rough machining of heavy and large forgings.!

!
Advantages!
L

1) Simple and fast process.!

A

2) Thin sheet metals can be machined.!

K

3) Good surface finish can be obtained.!

4) Producing complex shaped cavities.!
5) No tool wear.!
6) Rate of metal removal is more.!
7) Machining can be done accurately.!
8) No stress is developed in this process.!
!
Disadvantages!
1) High electric power is required.!
2) Non-conducting materials cannot be machined.!
3) Costly process.!
4) Corrosion occurs.!

Unit – III  3.14

!
REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) Classify unconventional machining processes. Give examples.

2) Explain the construction and working principle of abrasive jet machining process
with a neat sketch. (Oct.23)
3) State the applications, advantages and disadvantages of AJM. (Jun.22)
4) Explain the water jet machining process with a line sketch. State its applications.
(Nov.22)
5) Explain with a sketch the operation of ultrasonic machining process. Give its
applications and advantages.
(Apr.13, Oct.13, Oct.14, Apr.15, Oct.18, Apr.23, Apr.24)
6) Explain the principle of operation of electrical discharge machining with neat sketch.

M
(Apr.10, Oct.12, Oct.13, Apr.16,Apr.17, Jun.21)

A
7) List out the applications, advantages and disadvantages of EDM.

G
PA
8) Explain the working principle of electron beam machining process with neat sketch.
(Jun.22, Apr.23)
IP
9) Explain the working principle of laser beam machining process with neat sketch.
TH

State the application of this process.

(Apr.11, Oct.14, Apr.17, Oct.18, Jun.21, Oct.23)
PA

10) Explain the principle of working of plasma arc machining with neat sketch. List out
the advantages of PAM. (Oct.10, Oct.12, Apr.14, Oct.15, Oct.17, Apr.18, Nov.22)
L

11) What is chemical machining. Explain its working principle with a sketch.
A

(Apr.15, Apr.18)
K

12) Explain the working principle of electro chemical machining process. State its
applications. (Apr.16, Oct.17)

 

Unit – III  3.15

 Unit – IV
CNC MACHINES AND CNC PROGRAMMING
4.1 Numerical control
Numerical control of machine tools may be defined as a method of automation in
which various functions of machine tools are controlled by letters, numbers and symbols.
Basically, a NC machine runs on a program fed to it. Since the program is the controlling
point for product manufacture, the machine become versatile and can be used for
producing any part. The capability to change the program makes NC suitable for low and
medium production. It is much easier to write new programs than to make major alterations
in the machine tool.

4.2 Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

M
Computer numerical control is defined as a NC system that utilizes a dedicated

A
microcomputer to perform some or all of the basic numerical control functions. Numerical

G
control (NC) system is a method of automation in which various functions of machine tools
are controlled by letters, numbers and symbols. PA
IP

Machine
Part Program
TH

Control Unit

Machine Tool
PA

Fig. 4.1 Components of CNC system

L

Components of CNC system

A

1) Part program
K

2) Machine Control Unit (MCU)

3) Machine tool

1) Part program
The part program is the list of instructions written in the numerical codes. It consists
of the basic operations to be carried out in machining of the part. These instructions include
the positions of cutting tool relative to the worktable, spindle speed, feed rate, cutting tool
selection, and other functions. The program is entered into MCU through any one of the
part programming methods.

2) Machine Control Unit (MCU)

MCU consists of the electronics and hardwares that read the part program and
convert it into mechanical actions of the machine tool. It includes the following:

Unit – IV  4.1
 Central processing unit : It manages other components in the MCU with the help
of software available in main memory.
Memory: System software, part programs, macros and other softwares are stored
in memory.
Input / Output interface: It provides communication between the various
components of the CNC system, other computer systems, and the machine
operator.
Control system: It includes hardware components that control the spindle speed,
position and velocity of machine axes. It also includes drive control circuits and feed
back sensors.

3) Machine tool
Machine tool performs the processing steps to transform the starting work piece into

M
a finished part. It consists of the work table, spindle, motors and controls necessary to drive

A
them. It also includes the cutting tools, work fixtures, and other auxiliary equipment needed

G
in the machining operation.

Working of CNC system PA

The part program is prepared and entered into the machine control unit. The
IP

controller translates these numerical codes into the machine actuation details.
TH

The workpiece is loaded and secured in work holding device.

The proper tool is automatically selected and fitted in the tool holder.
PA

When the machine is switched ON, the control system rotates the spindle at
specified speed. It moves the cutting tool along multiple axes.
L

As the cutting tool moves along the programmed path, it removes material from the
A

workpiece and shapes it into the desired form.

K

The Automatic Tool Changer (ATC) changes the tool automatically, when the
machining process requires multiple tools.
After the completion of all machining operations, the spindle stops. The machined
part is removed from the machine.

Applications of CNC
1) Machine tool applications
CNC lathe
CNC boring mill
CNC drill press
CNC milling machine
CNC cylindrical grinder

Unit – IV  4.2
2) Metal working applications
Punch presses for sheet metal hole punching
Presses for sheet metal bending
Welding machines
Flame cutting machines
Thermal cutting machines
Laser cutting machines
Tube bending machines

3) Other CNC applications

Assembly machines
Electrical wire wrap machines
Component insertion machines

M
Automatic drafting machines

A
Inspection machines

G
Coordinate measuring machines
Cloth cutting machines
PA
IP
Automated knitting machines
Automated riveting machines
TH

Advantages of CNC machines

PA

1) Nonproductive time is reduced to absolute minimum.

2) Parts can be produced more accurately.
L

3) Operator involvement is reduced and hence scrap rate is minimized.

A

4) Need for expensive jigs and fixtures is reduced.

K

5) Inspection requirements are reduced.

6) Lead time for manufacturing is reduced.
7) Overall production cost is reduced.
8) More complex part geometries are possible.
9) Parts inventory is reduced to a minimum.
10) Engineering changes can be accommodated easily.
11) Less floor space is required.
12) Operation fatigue does not occur in the manufacturing of part.
13) Tools can be utilized at optimum feeds and speeds.
14) Metal removal rate of CNC machine is generally high.

Unit – IV  4.3
Disadvantages of CNC machines
1) The initial investment cost of a CNC machine tool is much high.
2) The cost and skill of the people required to operate the CNC machine is generally high.
3) Special training is needed to the persons operating the CNC machine tool.
4) The maintenance cost for CNC machine tool is high.
5) The automatic operation of CNC machines implies relatively higher running costs.

4.3 Difference between NC and CNC

NC system CNC system

1) It is hard–wired. It is based on a micro computer.
2) Punched tape only can be used as input Punched tape, magnetic tape, floppy
medium. diskette, compact disc and keyboard are

M
used as input medium.

A
3) No memory to store part program. Part program can be stored in computer

G
memory.
PA
4) Punched tape and tape reader is least Computer memory is more reliable.
reliable.
IP

5) Metric conversion of units is not possible. Automatic metric conversion of units is

TH

possible.
6) Part program cannot be edited at the Part program can be edited and optimized
PA

machine site. at the machine site itself.

7) Machining cycles and subroutines are Machining cycles and subroutines are
L

not available. available.

A
K

8) Only linear and circular interpolations Linear, circular, helical, parabolic and
can be executed. cubic interpolations can be executed.
9) Tool compensation is not possible. Tool compensation is possible.
10) Simulation of part program is not Simulation of part program is possible.
possible.
11) Information on machine utilization Information on machine utilization can be
cannot be obtained. obtained.
12) Speeds and feeds cannot be changed Speeds and feeds can be changed during
during the cutting process. the cutting process.
13) It has no diagnostics capability. It has on–line diagnostics capability to
detect malfunctions or breakdown.

Unit – IV  4.4
4.4 CNC turning centres
Turret for drills &
Chuck reamers
CNC controls

Viewing
window

Sliding
door

Base

Workpiece Turret for

turning tools

Fig. 4.2 CNC turning centre

M
The CNC turning centre is a machine tool capable of performing various turning and

A
related operations on work piece in one setup under CNC system. These are generally

G
provided with two axis control, Z axis parallel to the spindle and X axis perpendicular to
spindle axis. PA
IP
Types of CNC turning centres
TH

1) Turn–mill centre: It is a combined machine tool which can perform the turning and
milling operations in the same machine tool.
PA

2) Twin turret turning centre: It is provided with two turrets.

3) Multiple spindle turning centre: It consists of two spindles arranged in parallel to
L

each other at a fixed distance. It is capable of machlining two workpieces

A

simultaneously.
K

4) Vertical turning centres: It has the spindle in the vertical direction. It is used for
turning very large diameter work pieces.

Components
Spindle: It holds and rotates the workpiece.
Chuck: It is a work holding device attached to the spindle.
Turret: It is a rotating tool holder that can accommodate multiple cutting tools. The
turret can be indexed (rotated) to quickly switch between different tools.
Tailstock: It provides additional support for long workpieces.
Bed: It provides structural support and stability to the machine. It houses the
guideways for the movement of turret and tailstock.

Unit – IV  4.5
 Control panel: It includes a display screen, keypad, emergency stop button, and
various controls for manual operation and programming.
Control system: It reads the part program and converts it into mechanical actions
of the machine tool.
Servo motors and drives: It controls the movement of spindle, turret, and axes.
Automatic Tool Changer (ATC): It is a mechanism that automatically changes the
cutting tools in the turret without manual intervention

Working principle
The part program is prepared and entered into the machine control unit. The
controller translates these numerical codes into the machine actuation details.
The workpiece is loaded into the chuck of the spindle. The spindle rotates the
workpiece during the machining process.

M
The turret rotates to position the required tool in the correct location.

A
When the machine is switched ON, the control system rotates the spindle at

G
specified speed. It moves the cutting tool along multiple axes. The X-axis controls
PA
the radial movement of the tool and the Z-axis controls the axial movement.
As the cutting tool moves along the programmed path, it removes material from the
IP
rotating workpiece to create the desired shape.
TH

The Automatic Tool Changer (ATC) changes the tool automatically, when the
machining process requires multiple tools.
PA

After the completion of all machining operations, the spindle stops. The machined
part is removed from the machine.
L
A

4.5 CNC Machining Centres

K

The CNC machining centre is a machine tool capable of performing multiple machining
operations on work piece in one setup under CNC system. Typical machining operations
include milling, drilling, boring, reaming, and tapping.

Types of CNC machining centres

Vertical machining centre: It has a spindle on a vertical axis relative to the work
table. It is used for work pieces that require machining from the top.
Horizontal machining centre: It has a spindle on a horizontal axis. It is used for
machining heavier work pieces with large metal removal rates.
Universal machining centre: It has the capability of tilting the spindle axis from
horizontal to vertical position under computer control.

Unit – IV  4.6
 Z-axis
servo motor
ATC
Spindle motor

Spindle
Tool
magazine
Tool

Column Table

Base

M
Fig. 4.3 CNC vertical machining centre

A
G
Components
PA
Spindle: It is the rotating axis of the machine. It is responsible for holding and driving
the cutting tools.
IP
Tool magazine: It is a storage system that holds multiple cutting tools.
TH

Automatic Tool Changer (ATC): This mechanism automatically exchanges tools

between the tool magazine and the spindle.
PA

Worktable: Workpiece is secured on the worktable during machining. It moves

along various axes. It has T-slots or a fixture system to clamp the workpiece
L

securely.
A

Control panel: It includes a display screen, keypad, emergency stop button, and
K

various controls for manual operation and programming.

Control system: It reads the part program and converts it into mechanical actions
of the machine tool.
Machine bed: It is the heavy, rigid base that supports the entire structure.
Drive motors: These motors control the movement of the axes (X, Y, Z) and the
rotation of the spindle.

Working principle
The part program is prepared and entered into the machine control unit. The
controller translates these numerical codes into the machine actuation details.
The workpiece is securely clamped onto the worktable.

Unit – IV  4.7
 Automatic Tool Changer (ATC) selects the appropriate tool. The selected tool is
automatically loaded into the spindle.
When the machine is switched ON, the control system rotates the spindle at
specified speed. The spindle is positioned vertically. It allows the cutting tool to move
downward (Z-axis) toward the workpiece.
The CNC control system directs the movement of the worktable and spindle along
X, Y and Z axes according to the programmed toolpath.
As the cutting tool moves along the programmed path, it removes material from the
rotating workpiece to create the desired shape.
The Automatic Tool Changer (ATC) changes the tool automatically, when the
machining process requires multiple tools.
After the completion of all machining operations, the spindle stops. The machined
part is removed from the machine.

M
A
4.6 Machine axis conventions

G
Z-axis
PA
The Z-axis motion is along the spindle axis or parallel to the spindle axis. In the case
of machine without a spindle such as shapers and planers, the Z-axis is
IP
perpendicular to the work holding surface.
TH

For machines such as milling, drilling and lathe, the cutting tools move in the negative
Z direction to move a tool into the work piece. The positive Z motion increases the
PA

clearance between the tool holder and work piece surface.

When there are several spindles and slide ways, the spindle perpendicular to the work
L

holding surface may be chosen as the principal spindle. The primary Z motion is then
A

related to the primary spindle.

K

+Z
Workpiece +C

-X +B +Y
Workpiece
-Z

+X
+A

-Y +X
-X +Z
Worktable
-Z
(a) For turning centres (b) For machining centres

Fig. 4.4 Machine axes conventions

Unit – IV  4.8
X-axis
The principal motion direction of cutting tool or the work piece is designated as
X–axis. It is perpendicular to the Z-axis and should be horizontal and parallel to the
work holding surface when possible.
When looking from the principal spindle to the column, the positive (+) X is to the
Right. For turning machines, it is radial and parallel to the cross slide.

Y-axis
It is perpendicular to both X and Y-axes, and the direction is identified by the right
hand Cartesian coordinate system.

4.7 Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMM)

A Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) is a device used to measure the physical
geometrical characteristics of an object. It can determine the shape, size, and position of

M
an object in three-dimensional space with high precision.

A
G
Construction of CMM
PA
Probe: It is the main sensing device of a CMM, which contacts or scans the surface
of the object to measure coordinates. The different types of probes are touch-trigger
IP
probes, scanning probes, optical and laser probes.
TH

Structure: It provides the mechanical framework that supports the probe and allows
it to move in 3D space. Common CMM structures include bridge type, cantilever
PA

type, gantry type and horizontal arm type.

Worktable: It is flat and rigid to ensure that measurements are taken with high
L

accuracy.
A

Controller unit: It processes data from the probe and sends signals to move the
K

structure. It controls the operation of the machine by guiding the movement of the
probe, interpreting measurement data, and allowing the operator to interact with the
system.
Software: CMM software is essential for controlling the machine, capturing data,
and analyzing the measurements.
Scale system (Encoders): CMMs use precision scale systems or encoders to
determine the exact position of the probe in the X, Y, and Z axes.
Drive system: The drive system moves the probe along the X, Y, and Z axes.
Feedback and display system: The feedback system provides real-time data about
the probe's position and the object being measured. The display system include
screens that show the measurement results and control data in a user-friendly format.

Unit – IV  4.9
 Multiple tips probe Bridge structure

Fig. 4.5 Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)

Working principle of CMM

CAD system
CMM Program

M
A
Data about part

G
CNC Program PA
IP
Part
TH
PA

Data about part

CNC
L

Machine Tool CMM

A

Fig. 4.6 Working principle of direct computer control CMM

K

The inspection programs for CMM is generated with the help of a CAD database
containing the geometric information and manufacturing information. This is
achieved by using Dimensional Measuring Interface Standard (DMIS). DMIS is a
protocol that permits two–way communication between CAD systems and CMM.
After a part has been produced on the CNC machine tool, the part is checked on a
CMM with the inspection program downloaded from the computer.
After CMM checks the part, data about the part is sent back to the computer, where
the original part geometry is stored.
The geometry of the designed part is compared with the geometry of the produced
part and deviations existing are identified.
This will help in identifying the problems in manufacturing and rectification.

Unit – IV  4.10
Application of CMM
1) Checking the various dimensions of machined components.
2) Checking the profiles and dimensions of gears, threads and cams.
3) Checking sheet metal panels, subassemblies and complete car bodies in the
automotive industries.
4) Inspection of incoming parts from a vendor to ensure that the vendor’s quality control
system are reliable.
5) Checking and measuring various gauges, fixtures and other inspection and
production tools to validate their continued use.

Advantages of CMM
1) Inspection cycle time is reduced.
2) More flexibility to measure different part configuration.

M
3) Operator errors in measurements and setup are reduced.

A
4) More accurate and precise than manual inspection.

G
5) Better repeatability.
6) Operation of CMM is simple. PA
7) All the features and dimensions of a component can be measured in a single setup.
IP

4.8 CNC Part programming

TH

CNC part program is a detailed list of instructions that need to be executed by the
machine control unit (MCU) to achieve the final component shape. The processing
PA

sequence needed to manufacture a given part is broken down into small elements and
written in a specific format understood by the MCU.
L
A

4.8.1 Data required for part program

K

1) Specification of coordinate system

2) Specification of axes
3) Specification of machines
4) Specification of reference points in machines and work pieces
5) Specification of tools
6) Method of holding work pieces
7) Data tables and books containing cutting process parameters such as speed, feed,
depth of cut, etc.
8) Sequence of operation

Unit – IV  4.11
4.9 Coordinates system
The following two types of coordinates system are used in CNC machines :
a) Cartesian coordinate system
b) Polar coordinate system

a) Cartesian coordinate system

Most of the CNC machines make use of Cartesian coordinate system for the sake
of simplicity. The guiding coordinate system followed for designating the axes is the right
hand coordinate system.

M
A
G
PA
IP
Fig. 4.7 Right hand coordinate system
TH

Designation of axes
+Z
PA

Workpiece +C

-X +B +Y
L

Workpiece
A

-Z
K

+X
+A

-Y +X
-X +Z
Worktable
-Z
(a) For turning centres (b) For machining centres

Fig. 4.8 Designation of axes

Z-axis
The Z-axis motion is along the spindle axis or parallel to the spindle axis.
For machines such as milling, drilling and lathe, the cutting tools move in the negative
Z direction to move a tool into the work piece. The positive Z motion increases the
clearance between the tool holder and work piece surface.

Unit – IV  4.12
X-axis
The principal motion direction of cutting tool or the work piece is designated as X–
axis. It is perpendicular to the Z-axis and should be horizontal and parallel to the work
holding surface.
When looking from the principal spindle to the column, the positive (+) X is to the
Right. For turning machines, it is radial and parallel to the cross slide.

Y-axis
It is perpendicular to both X and Z-axes, and the direction is identified by the right
hand Cartesian coordinate system.

Rotary motions
A, B and C define primary rotary motion. These motions are located about the axis
parallel to X, Y and Z respectively.

M
A
Positive A, B and C are in the directions which advance right hand screw in the

G
positive X, Y and Z directions respectively.

b) Polar coordinate system

PA
IP
Polar coordinates define points by giving their angle from a base line and a distance
from a particular point. Polar coordinates are commonly used to describe a circular array
TH

of holes, such as a bolt hole circle.

PA

Many CNC machines have facility to toggle between polar and rectangular
coordinates. For example, some machines use G16 command to enable polar
L

coordinates. If G16 is enabled, X values are interpreted as the radius (distance) and Y
A

becomes the angle. On machines with this functionality G15 cancels polar coordinates and
K

returns to rectangular coordinates.

90°

Example :
The position of point A in polar coordinates is A
10

specified in CNC program as X10.0 Y45.0

45°

180° 0°

270°

Unit – IV  4.13
4.10 Absolute and incremental positioning
1) Absolute positioning : In absolute positioning, the coordinates of a point in a work
piece are always defined with respect to the origin or a common datum chosen by
the programmer. Whatever may be the route of the move, the programmed X and Y
values of each position remain the same.
2) Incremental positioning : In incremental positioning, the coordinates of a point in a
work piece are always defined relative to the previous point. The programmed data
changes if the route of the move is altered.

Example :
100

(20,80) (40,80) (80,80)

M
F E D

A
G
PA

100
60

IP
TH

(20,20) (60,20) (80,20)

A B C
20

PA

(0,0)
20 40 20
L
A

Fig. 4.9 Absolute and incremental positioning

K

Consider the initial position of the tool is at (0,0)

Programming from A-B-C-D-E-F-A :

Absolute Method Incremental Method

Point
X Y U V
A 20 20 20 20
B 60 20 40 0
C 80 20 20 0
D 80 80 0 60
E 40 80 - 40 0
F 20 80 - 20 0
A 20 20 0 -60

Unit – IV  4.14
4.11 CNC program procedure
Study part drawing

Identify Machine tool

machine tool database

Identify operations
& tooling Cutting tool
database
Determine feeds,
speeds & depths
Machinability
database
Prepare
process sheet

M
Develop
part program

A
G
Simulate
tool path
PA
IP
Dry run
TH

Cut the first part

PA

Inspect the part Proven part

L
A

Fig.4.10 CNC program procedure

K

The steps involved in development of a part program are :

1) Process planning: The programmer carryout a careful study of part drawing to

prepare the process plan.
2) Axes selection: The reference axes should be chosen so that the coordinates for
various features can be determined easily.
3) Tool selection: More economical tool should be selected.
4) Cutting process parameters planning: The appropriate process parameters such
as speed, feed and depth of cut are selected.
5) Job and tool setup planning: The initial position of job and tool are defined carefully.

Unit – IV  4.15
 6) Tool path planning: A tool path should be selected so that to achieve the required
manufacturing at the lowest cost.
7) Part program writing: This involves the actual writing of the part programs using the
format and syntax restrictions.
8) Part program proving: The part program should be verified before it can be loaded
on the machine controller. A trial run can be carried out.

4.12 Basic CNC program

The complete part program for a given component consists of a beginning code of
%. A part program consists of large number of blocks each representing an operation to
be carried out in the machining of the part. The words in each block are usually given in
the following order.

Sequence number (N – word)

M
A
Preparatory word (G – word)

G
Coordinates (X–, Y–, Z– words for linear axes)
Feed rate (F – word) PA
Spindle speed (S – word)
IP

Tool selection (T – word)

TH

Miscellaneous command (M – word)

PA

End–of–block (EOB symbol)

The structure of part program used in Fanuc controller :

L
A

%; (Program start)
K

O 3642 (Program number)

s..........
N010 . . . . .

Blocks
..... .....
N100 M02; (Program end)

Program number : This identification is specified in terms of a program number with

O word address. The number can be a maximum of four digits.
Sequence number (N–word) : Each block in a part program always starts with a
block number, which is used as identification of the block.

Unit – IV  4.16
 Coordinate function : The coordinate values are specified using the word address
such as X, Y, Z, U, V, W, I, J, K, etc.
Comments : Parentheses are used to add comments in the program

Table 4.1 Common word addresses used in word address format

Address Function
N Sequence number to identify a block.
G Preparatory word.
X, Y, Z Coordinate data for three linear axes.
U, V, W Coordinate data for incremental moves in X, Y and Z directions
respectively.
A, B, C Coordinate data for three rotational axes X, Y and Z respectively.

M
R Radius of arc, used in circular interpolation.

A
I, J, K Coordinate values of arc centre, corresponding to X, Y and Z-axes

G
respectively.
F
PA
Feed rate per minute or revolution in either inches or millimeters.
IP
S Spindle rotation speed.
TH

T Tool selection.
D Tool diameter word used for offsetting the tool.
PA

P It defines first contour block number in canned cycles.

Q It defines last contour block number in canned cycles.
L

M Miscellaneous function.
A
K

4.13 Preparatory functions (G – codes)

These are preset function associated with the movement of machine axes and the
associated geometry. It prepares the machine control unit for the instruction and data
contained in the block.

Modal and Non–modal G–codes

Some of the G–codes are modal, which means that they behave as settings to the
control. Once given they remain operational till cancelled by another G codes from
the same group.
A few other G–codes are non–modal, which means that they remain operational in
the block in which they are programmed.
Example : G20 (Inch input) is a modal command, which can be cancelled by G21
(Metric input) command.
Unit – IV  4.17
 Table 4.2 Common G–codes

Function
G - Code
Turning Center Machining Center
G00 Rapid positioning
G01 Linear interpolation
C02 Circular interpolation (Clockwise)
G03 Circular interpolation (Anticlockwise)
G04 Dwell
G10 Setting offset amount
G17 Selection of XY plane
G18 Selection of ZX plane

M
G19 Selection of YZ plane

A
G20 Inch input system

G
G21 Metric input system
G27 Zero return check PA
G28 Return to zero
IP

G33 Thread cutting, block by block

TH

G40 Tool nose radius compensation cancel Cutter radius compensation cancel
G41 Tool nose radius compensation Left Cutter radius compensation Left
PA

G42 Tool nose radius compensation Right Cutter radius compensation Right
G50 Maximum spindle speed setting
L
A

G65 Call of user macro

K

G70 Finishing turning cycle

G71 Multiple turning cycle
G72 Multiple facing cycle
G73 Pattern repeating cycle
G74 Peck drilling cycle
G75 Grooving cycle
G76 Multiple thread cutting cycle
G80 Canned cycle cancel
G81 Drilling cycle, spot boring
G82 Drilling cycle, counter boring
G83 Peck drilling cycle

Unit – IV  4.18
 Function
G - Code
Turning Center Machining Center
G84 Tapping cycle
G85 Boring cycle
G86 Boring cycle
G87 Back boring cycle
G90 Box turning cycle Absolute mode of positioning
G91 Incremental mode of positioning
G92 Thread cutting cycle Preset program zero point
G94 Box facing cycle Feed per minute
G95 Feed per revolution
G96 Constant surface speed (m/min)

M
G97 Constant RPM

A
G98 Feed per minute

G
G99 Feed per revolution PA
IP
4.14 Miscellaneous functions or Auxiliary functions (M – codes)
TH

These functions actually operate some controls on the machine tool and thus affect
the running of the machine. Miscellaneous commands are normally placed at the end of the
PA

block.
Table 4.3 Common M – codes
L

M–code Function
A

M00 Program stop

K

M01 Optional stop

M02 End of program
M03 Spindle ON, clockwise
M04 Spindle ON, counter–clockwise
M05 Spindle stop
M06 Tool change
M07 Coolant supply No.1 ON
M08 Coolant supply No.2 ON
M09 Coolant OFF

Unit – IV  4.19
 M–code Function
M10 Automatic clamping
M11 Automatic unclamping
M13 Spindle ON, clockwise + coolant ON
M14 Spindle ON, counter–clockwise + coolant ON
M30 Program END and rewind
M70 X axis mirror ON
M71 Y axis mirror ON
M80 X axis mirror OFF
M81 Y axis mirror OFF
M98 Subprogram call

M
M99 Subprogram end

A
G
[Note : G – codes, M – codes and programming methods used in this book are based
on FANUC CNC controller system] PA
IP
4.15 Machine control panel
TH
PA
L
A
K

Fig. 4.11 Machine control panel

Unit – IV  4.20
 The machine control panel of a typical CNC machine is shown in the figure. The
main features are :
ON / OFF switch : Power and control switch for the main power and control unit
Cycle Start : Starts program execution or MDI command
Emergency Stop : Stops all machine activity and turns off power to the control unit
Feed hold : Temporarily stops motion of all axes
Single Block : Allows program run one block at a time
Optional Stop : Temporarily stops program execution.
Block Skip : Ignores blocks preceded with a forward slash ( / ) in the program
Dry Run : Enables program testing at fast feedrates (without a mounted part)
Spindle Override : Overrides programmed spindle speed.
Feedrate Override : Overrides programmed feedrate.

M
Chuck Clamp : Shows current status of the chuck clamping

A
Table Clamp : Shows current status of table clamping

G
Coolant Switch : Coolant control ON / OFF / AUTO
PA
Gear Selection : Shows current status of working gear range selection
IP
Spindle Rotation : Indicates spindle rotation direction
Spindle Orientation : Manual orientation of the spindle
TH

Tool Change : Switch allowing a manual tool change

PA

Reference Position : Switches and lights relating to setup of machine, from

reference position
L

Handle (MPG) : Manual Pulse Generator (MPG), used for Axis Select and Handle
A

Increment switches
K

MDI Mode : Manual Data Input mode

AUTO Mode : Allows automatic operations
MEMORY mode : Allows program execution from memory of the CNC unit
DNC mode : Allows program execution from an external device
EDIT mode : Allows changes to be made to a program stored in CNC memory
MANUAL Mode : Allows manual operations during setup
JOG Mode : Selects jog mode for setup
RAPID Mode : Selects rapid mode for setup
Memory Access Key (switch) : to allow program editing
Error Lights : Red light indicating an error

Unit – IV  4.21
 Screen Display : It is the ‘window’ to control operation. Any active program can be
viewed, including the control status, current tool position, various offsets, and
parameters.
Keyboard pads and soft keys : They are used to input instructions to the control.
Existing programs can be modified or deleted, new programs can be added.

4.16 Home position

Homing is the process of sending all axis of the CNC machine to home position. It is
also known as zeroing the machine. Home position is the true machine origin. It is also
used as the starting location for a new program.

Most CNC machines require that all axes should be zeroed before starting any
process. Return to home position is always a positive direction in all axes. The procedure
for sending each axis HOME is as follows :

M
A
Turn on the CNC machine.

G
Turn on the controller.
Switch to HOME mode selection. PA
Select axis.
IP

Press the + RAPID button for two seconds.

TH

Repeat the procedure for other axes.

PA

Home postion in programming

The command G28 is used in the CNC program to move the specified axis to home
L

position.
A

For CNC milling : G28 X0 Y0 Z0 (Machine zero in XYZ)

K

For CNC turning : G28 U0 W0 (Machine zero in XZ)

4.17 Offset setting in CNC turning machine

All the workpiece coordinates for programming will be referenced from Work
Coordinate System (WCS) origin. On turning machines, the workpiece will change in
lenght from job to job. Hence the origin should be reset in the Z-axis for each new job.

Workpiece offset is the Z-axis distance from the Machine Coordinate System
(MCS) zero to the WCS zero. The X-axis offset remains zero as the spindle and
workpiece are in same centre line.

Unit – IV  4.22
 Distance shown on display
Turret
Work offset

Tool
Gauge holder
Workpiece block

W
Spindle

(Spindle face)

WCS Z-zero
MCS Z-zero

(Workpiece)

M
Fig. 4.12 Work offset setting

A
Basic steps for setting work offset :

G
1) The workpiece is fitted in the machine.
2) The turret is indexed to a facing tool. PA
3) The Z-axis is moved to bring the facing tool near the end of the workpiece.
IP

4) The spindle is started. The work piece is faced to clean the face.
TH

5) The turret is moved to a safe position and indexed to an empty position.

6) A gauge block is held against the face of the workpiece.
PA

7) The turret is slowly moved until its face slightly touches the gauge block.
8) Now the current Z-axis position is shown on the display. The gauge block length is
L
A

subtracted from this value.

K

9) The resultant value gives the distance from the MCS origin to the WCS origin. This
value is entered into the work offset page in the controller.

4.18 Work offset setting procedure in CNC milling

Milling workpieces will change in shape, location and origin placement from job to
job. Therefore the origin must be reset for each newly set-up job by setting a new WCS.
The Z-axis work offset is set first. Then the X-axis and Y-axis work offset are set.

Z-axis work offset setting procedure:

1) The workpiece is fitted in the work holding device.
2) A face mill is placed on the spindle.
3) The tool is moved near the top surface of the workpiece.
4) The spindle is started.

Unit – IV  4.23
 5) The tool is slowly moved in the Z-axis until it lightly touches the top work piece
surface.
6) The work piece surface is face milled by moving the X or Y axis.
7) The face mill is removed from the spindle.
8) A gauge block is set against the newly machined top surface of the work piece.
9) The spindle is slowly moved until its nose slightly touches the gauge block.
10) Now the current Z-axis position is shown on the display. The gauge block height is
added to this value.
11) The resultant value gives the distance from the MCS origin to the WCS origin. This
value is entered into the work offset page for the Z-axis.
MCS

M
A shown on display
Total Z work offset

Machine

Z distance
head

G
PA
IP
Spindle
TH

Gauge block
PA

WCS Workpiece
L

Fig. 4.13 Z-axis work offset setting

A
K

X-axis and Y-axis work offset setting

The work offset for the X-axis and Y-axis can be set by locating the work piece with
an edge finder. The basic steps includes the following :
1) The workpiece is fitted in the work holding device.
2) An edge finder is loaded into the tool holder in the machine spindle.
3) The work piece is moved so that the pilot of the edge finder is close to the edge of
the work piece.
4) The spindle is started.
5) The work piece is slowly moved in the X-axis until it lightly touches the edge of the
work piece.
6) Now the current X-axis position is shown on the display.
7) The edge finder radius is either added to or subtracted from this position.

Unit – IV  4.24
 8) The resultant value gives the distance from the MCS origin to the WCS origin. This
value is entered into the work offset page for the X-axis.
9) These steps are repeated for the Y-axis.

4.19 Tool length offset setting

The top surface of the work piece (Z-zero) is used as reference point to measure the
tool length. The length is measured from the gauge line of the tool holder to the tool tip.

Gauge line

M
Tool length

A
G
PA
IP
TH

Tool tip
Fig. 4.14 Tool length offset setting
PA

The basic steps used to set the tool offset is as follows :

1) The work piece is mounted. The top surface is machined to ensure a smooth and flat
L
A

reference surface.
K

2) The work offset is accurately set so that the top of the work piece becomes Z-zero.
3) The tool is loaded in the spindle.
4) The Z-axis is moved to bring the tool tip close to the Z-zero surface of the work piece.
5) A gauge block is used as a feeler gauge to establish a light gap between the tool tip
and the top surface of the work piece.
6) When the tool touches the feeler gauge, the Z-axis position is recorded from the
machine position register.
7) The feeler gauge thickness is subtracted from the recorded position. The resultant
value gives the length of the tool from the spindle face to the tool tip. This value is
entered into the tool length offset page.

Unit – IV  4.25
4.20 Part programming for turning centres
Diameter programming
The dimensioning of a turned component is generally specified by its diameters.
However, in turning operation, the tool should approach the work piece in radial
direction for machining.
Hence, for the sake of simplicity, most of the turning centres are provided with
diameter programming facility. This means that all the movements of the tool along
X–axis should be doubled to represent the diametral movement rather than radial
movement.

Axes system
Tool datum Tool turret

M
T

Machine datum

A
G
+X
Work datum
PA
-Z M W
IP
TH

Chuck
PA

Fig. 4.15 Axes system used in turning centres

In turning centres, the spindle axis is designated as Z. The radial axis perpendicular
L

to the Z-axis and away toward the principal tool post is termed as X–axis.
A

The machine datum or home position may be the intersection of spindle axis and
K

clamping plane.
The work piece datum is fixed by the programmer on the work piece for the
convenience of part programming. The difference between the tool tip position and the
turret datum is termed as tool offset.

4.20.1 Tool function (T–word)

Tools are selected in a program through the T word. The T word selects the turret
station that is to be indexed to the cutting position and activates the tool offset register
number. The tool offset register number selects the following data from the tool-offset file.
X and Z axis tool offsets
Tool nose radius value
Tool nose orientation number

Unit – IV  4.26
 The T word has the format Tmmnn. The first two digits (mm) specify the turret station
and the last two digits (nn) specify the location of the tool offsets. The offset is cancelled
by giving 00 in place of the offset register number.

Example: N050 M06 T0616

The above block calls for the turret station 6 and selects tool offset register number 16.

4.20.2 Speed function

a) Constant surface speed option (G96)
The cutting speed is specified by the diameter of the rotating work piece which varies
during different turning processes such as step turning, taper turning, facing, etc. Hence to
maintain a constant cutting force and uniform surface finish, it is necessary to vary the
spindle speed in direct proportion to the change in work piece diameter at the cutting tool

M
edge. This is achieved by constant surface speed option.

A
b) Constant RPM option (G97)

G
This is the default option. Since, the spindle speed is continuously varied in turning
PA
operation, there is a possibility that the rpm may go beyond certain maximum limit. In such
situations, it is possible to specify an upper limit on the speed change using the G50
IP

command.
TH

Example:
PA

N080 G50 S4000 (Maximum spindle rpm is 4000)

N070 G96 S200 (Spindle speed is set at 200 m/min)
L

N090 G97 S2500 (Spindle speed is set at 2500 rpm)

A
K

4.20.3 Feed specification

G98 – Feed in mm/min; G99 – Feed in mm/rev.
G98 is the default mode. The feed rate remains unchanged until reprogrammed. The
decimal point must be programmed while using G99. The feed rate override switch on the
control panel modifies the programmed feed rate from 0 percent to 150 percent.

Example:
G98 F2.5 (2.5 mm / minute)
G99 F1 (0.01 mm / revolution)
G99 F1.0 (1.00 mm / revolution)
G99 F100 (1.00 mm / revolution)

Unit – IV  4.27
4.20.4 Rapid positioning (G00)
G00 is used for rapid positioning simultaneously in all the axes. The feed rate
programmed in the block would be overridden by the maximum allowed feed rate for the
axes. The G00 command is modal.

Example: (Rapid movement from A to B)

+X
A(50,20)

B(10,0)

+Z

M
Fig. 4.16 Rapid positioning

A
Absolute mode: N030 G00 X10 Z0

G
Incremental mode: N030 G00 U–40 W–20 PA
Mixed mode: N030 G00 U–40 Z0 (or) G00 X10 W–20
IP
TH

4.20.5 Interpolation methods

Interpolation methods are used in NC for generating a smooth continuous linear and
PA

curvilinear path in contouring applications. The various methods of interpolation are as

follows.
L

Linear interpolation: This is used when a straight line path is to be generated in

A

continuous path.
K

Circular interpolation: This is used for generating circular arc.

Helical interpolation
Parabolic interpolation
Cubic interpolation

a) Linear interpolation (G01)

This is the most basic and is used for creating straight-line path. G01 is used for
linear interpolation at a given feed rate. The programmer specifies the beginning point and
end point of the straight line and the feed rate to be used along the straight line. The format
of G01 is as follows:

G01 X_ Z_ F_

Unit – IV  4.28
Example : (Programming from A–B–C–D)
+X
A
D
(60,-23)

C
(30,-25)
B(20,0)

+Z

Fig. 4.17 Linear interpolation

N030 G00 X20 Z0

N040 G01 X30 Z–25 F150

M
N050 G00 X60 Z–23

A
b) Circular interpolation

G
This method is used for generating circular arc. The circular interpolation can be
PA
achieved either by specifying the radius or centre coordinates of the arc. The radius can
be directly specified using the R word address. When the center coordinate is specified,
IP

its value is to be given in incremental form from the start point of the arc with word
TH

addresses I and K.
PA

(i) Circular interpolation – clockwise (G02)

The format of G02 is as follows:
L

G02 X_ Z_ R_ F_ (or) G02 X_ Z_ I_ K_ F_

A

Example : (Programming from A–B–C–D–E)

K

(60,-28) E
+X

D R5 A
(30,-30)
I=5

C (20,-20) B(20,0)

+Z

Fig. 4.18 Circular interpolation – clockwise

Unit – IV  4.29
 N030 G00 X20 Z0 N030 G00 X20 Z0
N040 G01 X20 Z–20 F150 N040 G01 X20 Z–20 F150
(OR)
N050 G02 X30 Z–30 R5 F50 N050 G02 X30 Z–30 I5 K0 F50
N060 G00 X60 Z–28 N060 G00 X60 Z–28

(ii) Circular interpolation – Counter-clockwise (G03)

The format of G03 is as follows:

G03 X_ Z_ R_ F_ (or) G03 X_ Z_ I_ K_ F_

Example : (Programming from A–B–C–D–E)
(60,-28) E
+X

D R5 A

M
(30,-30)
C

A
K=-5 (20,-20) B(20,0)

G
PA +Z
IP
TH

Fig. 4.19 Circular interpolation – Counter-clockwise

N030 G00 X20 Z0 N030 G00 X20 Z0

PA

N040 G01 X20 Z–20 F150 N040 G01 X20 Z–20 F150
(OR)
N050 G03 X30 Z–30 R5 F50 N050 G03 X30 Z–30 I0 K–5 F50
L
A

N060 G00 X60 Z–28 N060 G00 X60 Z–28

K

4.20.6 Tool nose radius compensation (G41, G42)

(a) (b)
Tool nose radius Tool nose radius
compensation - not active compensation - active

Fig. 4.20 Tool nose radius correction

Unit – IV  4.30
 The tool path for finish cutting of a profile can be easily derived by offsetting the nose
radius.
By using the cutter compensation, the need for all complex calculations will be
eliminated. The programming can be written for the actual contour to be machined.
The tool will leave a small amount of metal along the inclined surface, when the tool
nose radius compensation is not active.
If the correction is active, the controller automatically compensates and removes the
unwanted material.

Example part program : 4.01

☞ Write a part program for producing the component shown below in turning
centre.

M
R10 (50,-60) D

A
A
(50,0)
I=10

G
C(30,-50) (30,0) B
PA
Ø30
Ø50

IP
TH

10 50
PA

Fig. 4.21 Component for part program 4.01

L

% (Program start)
A

O4030 (Program Number)

K

N010 G21 (Metric units – mm)

[BILLET X50 Z80 (Work piece dimension)
N020 G50 S4000 (Maximum spindle speed 4000 rpm)
N030 G98 (Feed in mm/min.)
N040 G96 S300 (Spindle speed at 300 m/min.)
N050 G42 (Tool nose radius compensation right)
N060 M06 T0101 (Select tool 01 with offset No.01)
N070 M03 (Spindle ON – forward)
N080 G00 X50 Z0 (Rapid position to A)
N090 G00 X30 Z0 (Rapid position from A to B)

Unit – IV  4.31
N100 G01 X30 Z–50 F150 (Turning from B to C)
N110 G02 X50 Z–60 R10 F50 (Clockwise circular interpolation from C to D)
(or)
G02 X50 Z–60 I10 K0 F50
N120 G40 (Nose radius compensation cancel)
N130 G28 U0 W0 (Tool return to reference point)
N140 M05 (Spindle Stop)
N150 M30 (Program stop and rewind)

4.21 Part programming for machining centres

4.21.1 Preset [G92]
Most of the CNC machine tools allow for a ‘Floating datum’ to be fixed anywhere in

M
the machine. The programmer can choose a convenient position on the component as a

A
datum, which may be referred to as ‘program zero point’. This point is programmed using

G
the G92 code.

Example: G92 X200 Y170 Z50

PA
IP

4.21.2 Cutter radius compensation (or) Cutter offset compensation

TH

Programmed
path
PA

Cutter
L
A

Offset path
K

of cutter

Fig. 4.22 Cutter radius compensation

In contouring operations, the tool path will be separated from the actual surface of
the part by a distance equal to the cutter radius. This tool path compensation is called the
cutter offset. Modern machine tool controllers perform these cutter offset calculations
automatically when the programmer uses the following G codes.
G40 (Cutter radius compensation off)
G41 (Cutter radius compensation left): It is used when the cutter is to be
positioned at the left of the programmed path when looking in the direction of the tool

Unit – IV  4.32
 movement. It is programmed when the cutter moves in a clockwise tool path around
the work piece.
G42 (Cutter radius compensation right): It is used when the cutter is to be
positioned at the right of the programmed path when looking in the direction of the
tool movement. It is programmed when the cutter moves in a counter-clockwise tool
path around the work piece.
The pre-registered cutter radius compensation values are called in the program
block by the word D.

Example: M06 T04

G01 X50 D03 F150
The above blocks mean that milling will take place with tool number 04 with a radius
compensation corresponding to the entry in the register against the identifier 03.

M
A
4.21.3 Tool length compensation

G
Z

1 2 PA
3 4
IP
TH L2

L3

L4
PA

X
L

Fig. 4.23 Tool length compensation

A
K

In modern NC practice, all tools are measured in the assembled state using a tool
presetter. The difference in length is manually entered and stored with the associated tool
number.

Whenever these tools are called in a program, the respective compensation values
are activated and automatically taken into account in the tool motion. The pre-registered
length compensation values are called in the program block by the word H.

Example: M06 T02

G81 X150 Y100 Z60 R40 H07 F100
The above blocks mean that the drilling operation will take place with tool number
02 with a length compensation corresponding to the entry in the register against the
identifier 07.

Unit – IV  4.33
Example part program : 3.02

☞ Write a part program for producing the following component in machining centre
using Fanuc controller. The size of the material used is 100x100x10mm.
R10 4(0,100) 3(100,100)

(20,80) (40,80) (80,80)

F E D
100

60

60
(20,20) (60,20) (80,20)
(0,20,2) S2 A B C
20

R10

M
(0,0,2) S1

A
1(0,0) 2(100,0)
20 50 40 20

G
100 Tool movement
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
A

Fig. 4.24 Component for part program 4.02

K

The diameter of the cutter is assumed as 10mm.

%
O4190
N010 G21 (Metric mode)
[BILLET X100 Y100 Z10

t DENFORD CNC simulator)

[TOOLDEF T1 D10 (Applicable only for
[EDGEMOVE X0 Y0 Z0

N020 G92 X0 Y0 Z0 (Presetting at S1)

N030 M06 T01 (Tool change)
N040 M03 S1500 (Spindle speed at 1500 rpm)

Unit – IV  4.34
(Absolute programming)

N050 G90 (Absolute mode)

(Cutting along 1–2–3–4)
N060 G41 (Cutter radius compensation, left)
N070 G00 X0 Y0 Z2 (Position S1)
N080 G00 Z–5 (Depth of cut)
N090 G01 X100 Y0 F1.5 (Position 2)
N100 G01 X100 Y100 (Position 3)
N110 G01 X0 Y100 (Position 4)
N120 G01 X0 Y0 (Position 1)

M
N130 G40 (Cutter compensation cancel)

A
G
(Cutting along A–B–C–D–E–F)
N140 G42 PA
(Cutter radius compensation, right)
N150 G00 X0 Y20 Z2 (Position S2)
IP

N160 G00 Z–5 (Depth of cut)

TH

N170 G01 X60 Y20 F1.5 (Position B)

PA

N180 G03 X80 Y20 R10 F0.5 (Circular interpolation from B–C)
N190 G01 X80 Y80 F1.5 (Position D)
L
A

N200 G01 X40 Y80 F1.5 (Position E)

K

N210 G03 X20 Y80 R10 F0.5 (Circular interpolation from E–F)
N220 G01 X20 Y20 F1.5 (Position A)

N230 G40 (Cutter compensation cancel)

N240 G28 X0 Y0 Z0 (Return to reference point)
N250 M05 (Spindle STOP)
N260 M30 (Program end and rewind)

Unit – IV  4.35
The above program can also be written in incremental mode as follows:

(Incremental programming)

N050 G91 (Incremental mode)

(Cutting along 1–2–3–4)
N060 G41 (Cutter radius compensation, left)
N070 G00 X0 Y0 Z2 (Position S1)
N080 G00 Z–7 (Depth of cut)
N090 G01 X100 Y0 F1.5 (Position 2)
N100 G01 X0 Y100 (Position 3)

M
N110 G01 X–100 Y0 (Position 4)

A
N120 G01 X0 Y–100 (Position 1)

G
N130 G40 (Cutter compensation cancel)
(Cutting along A–B–C–D–E–F)
PA
IP
N140 G42 (Cutter radius compensation, right)
TH

N150 G00 X0 Y20 Z7 (Position S2)

PA

N160 G00 Z–7 (Depth of cut)

N170 G01 X40 Y0 F1.5 (Position B)
L

N180 G03 X20 Y0 R10 F0.5 (Circular interpolation from B–C)

A

N190 G01 X0 Y60 F1.5 (Position D)

K

N200 G01 X–40 Y0 F1.5 (Position E)

N210 G03 X–20 Y0 R10 F0.5 (Circular interpolation from E–F)
N220 G01 X0 Y–60 F1.5 (Position A)

Unit – IV  4.36
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
1) Explain the working principle of CNC system.
(Apr.12, Apr.14, Oct.14, Apr.15, Apr.17, Nov.22)
2) List out the applications, advantages and disadvantages of CNC system.
(Oct.13, Apr.14, Oct.14, Apr.16, Apr.17, Apr.18)
3) Compare NC systems with CNC systems. (Oct.11, Oct.13, Oct.15, Jun.21, Oct.23)
4) Explain the construction and working of CNC turning centre.
(Apr.12, Oct.13, Apr.16, Oct.16, Oct.17, Oct.18, Apr.24)
5) Explain the construction and working of CNC machining centre.
(Oct.12, Apr.13, Apr.15, Oct.15, Apr.18, Apr.23, Oct.23)
6) Explain the machine axes conventions for CNC machines. (Apr.16, Oct.17)
7) What is CMM? Explain the working of CMM with neat sketch.
(Oct.12, Apr.13, Oct.13, Apr.15, Oct.15, Oct.16, Oct.17, Nov.22)

M
8) Explain the coordinate systems in CNC with sketches.

A
(Apr.11, Oct.15, Apr.17, Jun.22, Nov.22)

G
9) Explain absolute and incrementatl positioning methods with example.
PA (Apr.14, Apr.15, Apr.16, Oct.23)
10) Explain the CNC program procedure. (Apr.12, Apr.17, Oct.17, Oct.23)
IP
11) Explain the format of basic CNC program.
TH

12) Briefly explain preparatory and miscellaneous functions.

13) Describe any five G functions. (Oct.16, Oct.17)
PA

14) Explain the features in a machine control panel of a CNC system. (Nov.22)
15) Explain homing position.
L

16) Write the procedure for work offset setting in in CNC turning machine.
A

17) Explain the work offset setting procedure in CNC milling machine.
K

18) Write the procedure for tool length offset setting. (Nov.22)
19) Explain the following: i) Tool function ii) Feed function.
20) Write short notes on interpolation methods. (Apr.13)
21) Explain the terms linear interpolation and circular interpolation with an example.
(Apr.15, Oct.17)
22) Briefly explain about tool offset and tool nose radius compensation. (Apr.14, Oct.15)
23) Write a part program to produce a component in a CNC turning machine using linear
interpolation and circular interpolation with an example. (Apr.15, Oct.15, Oct.23)
24) What is cutter compensation? When it is used and how it is programmed?
25) Write a part program to produce a component in a CNC milling machine using linear
interpolation and circular interpolation with an example. (Oct.14, Apr.24)

 
Unit – IV  4.37
 Unit – V
RAPID PROTOTYPING
5.1 Rapid prototyping
Rapid prototyping is a manufacturing technique used to quickly create models or
simulations of a product for testing, evaluation, and improvement.
Classification
1) Subtractive manufacturing : It is a process by which 3D objects are constructed by
successively cutting material away from a solid block of material. Subtractive
prototypes are created using traditional manufacturing processes or CNC machining.
2) Additive manufacturing : It is a process by which 3D objects are constructed by
successively adding layers of liquid, powder, or sheet material and joining them

M
together to create the final shape.

A
Subtractive rapid prototype Additive rapid prototype

G
1) Material is removed Material is added
2) Solid composition
PA Layered composition
IP
3) High strength Low strength.
4) Only simple shape can be made Complex shape can be made
TH

5) Slow process Fast process

PA

6) High cost Low cost

Materials
L

Materials for rapid prototyping vary depending on the type of prototype, the
A

method used, and the desired properties of the prototype. The common materials are:
K

1) Plastics: ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene), PLA (Polylactic Acid), Nylon

(Polyamide), Polycarbonate (PC), Photopolymer resins, etc.
2) Metals: Aluminum, Stainless steel, Copper, Brass, etc.
3) Composites: Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Plastics, Fiberglass-Reinforced Plastics,
Kevlar-Reinforced Plastics, etc.
4) Rubbers and Elastomers
5) Ceramics: Alumina, Zirconia, Silicon Carbide, etc.
6) Paper and Cardboard
7) Foam: Polyurethane foam, Polystyrene Foam, etc.
8) Waxes

Unit – V  5.1
Applications of rapid prototyping
Prototypes for product design and testing.
Lightweight components for aircrafts.
High performance parts for automobiles.
Jigs, fixtures, and tools.
Moulds, dies, and other tools.
Medical devices, implants and prosthetics
Dental crowns and bridges.
Military weapons and prototypes.
Scale models of buildings and architectural designs.
Personalized consumer products.
Physical models for science, engineering, and medical education.
Designs for jewelry, clothing, shoes, and accessories.

M
Custom sculptures and art installations.

A
Advantages of rapid prototyping

G
1) Easier to find the design errors.
2) Design changes can be made easily.
PA
3) Gives the fair idea about the final product.
IP

4) Development time and cost are reduced.

TH

5) Product quality is improved.

6) Better communication between user and designer.
PA

7) Motivates innovation and creativity.

L

5.2 Stereolithography (SLA)

A

Stereolithography (SLA) is a popular additive manufacturing technology that uses a

K

photochemical method to create three-dimensional objects from liquid resin.

Working principle
A moveable table is placed at a position just below the surface of a vat. The vat is
filled with liquid photopolymer resin. This resin turns from liquid to solid when light
strikes it. The system is sealed to prevent the escape of fumes from the resin.
A laser beam is moved over the surface of the liquid photopolymer to trace the
geometry of the object. This causes the liquid to harden in areas where the laser
strikes. The laser beam is moved in the X-Y directions by a scanner system.
After a layer is completely traced, the table is lowered at a distance equal to the
thickness of a layer. The tracing and recoating steps are repeated until the object is
completely fabricated and sits on the table within the vat.

Unit – V  5.2
 After completion of the fabrication process, the object is elevated from the vat and
allowed to drain. Excess resin is wiped manually from the surfaces. The object is
given a final cure using Post-Curing Apparatus (PCA).
Laser
Scanner system

Y
Movable table
X

Sealed
chamber
Object being
fabricated

Liquid
photopolymer Vat

M
A
G
Fig. 5.1 Stereolithography
Applications PA
High-detail prototypes with smooth finishes.
IP

Dental models, surgical guides, hearing aids, and other medical devices.
TH

Designs for jewelry, clothing, shoes, and accessories

Visual and functional prototypes of consumer electronics.
PA

Accurate models for testing and validation.

L

Advantages of Stereolithography
A

1) Greatest accuracy
K

2) Best surface finish

3) Cost of equipment is comparatively less.
4) Simple process
5) Products are strong enough to be machined
6) Products can be used as master patterns.

Disadvantages of Stereolithography
1) Post curing is needed
2) Support structures are required
3) Ventilation is required
4) Uncured material can be toxic

Unit – V  5.3
5.3 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) is an advanced additive manufacturing technology
that uses a laser to sinter powdered material, binding it together to form a solid structure.
SLS is popular for producing highly durable, complex parts without the need for support
structures.
Laser
Scanner system
Sealed chamber

Roller Fabrication powder bed

Powder Object being fabricated

delivery system
Build cylinder

Powder
delivery piston

M
Fabrication piston

A
G
Fig. 5.2 Selective Laser Sintering

Working principle PA
A laser beam is traced over the surface of a tightly compacted powder made of
IP

thermoplastic material. Heat from the laser melts the powder. Laser strikes under
TH

guidance of the scanner system. The entire chamber is sealed and maintained at
a temperature just below the melting point of plastic powder.
PA

Once a layer is completed, the piston in the build cylinder moves down by the thickness
of a layer. The powder delivery piston moves upward incrementally to supply powder.
L

The roller spreads and compresses the powder on the top of the build cylinder.
A

The process is repeated until the entire object is completed. After the object is fully
K

formed, the piston is raised to elevate the object. Excess powder is brushed away
and final finishing is carried out.

Applications of SLS
Working models for testing.
Custom jigs, fixtures, and tools.
Medical devices, surgical guides and models
Lightweight components for aircrafts and automobiles.
Designs for jewelry, clothing, shoes, and accessories
Custom components for robots

Unit – V  5.4
Advantages of SLS
1) Simple process
2) No supports are required
3) No final curing is required
4) Various types of powder materials can be used
5) Complex geometries can be easily produced
6) High durable products can be produced.

Disadvantages of SLS
1) Poor surface finish.
2) Product will be porous.
3) Strength of the product is low.
4) Longer cooling time.
5) Comparatively expensive.

M
A
5.4 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

G
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is one of the most popular and widely used
PA
additive manufacturing technologies. It involves building objects layer by layer by
depositing melted thermoplastic filament through a heated nozzle.
IP
TH

X-Y-Z stage
PA

system Plastic filament

supply coil

Extrusion
L

nozzle
A

Object being
K

fabricated

Thermal
housing Table

Fig. 5.3 Fused Deposition Modeling

Working principle
A plastic filament is unwound from a coil and supplies material to an extrusion
nozzle. The nozzle is heated to melt the plastic. It has a mechanism to control the
flow of melted plastic. The nozzle is mounted to a mechanical stage which can be
moved in horizontal and vertical directions.

Unit – V  5.5
 The nozzle deposits a thin bead of extruded plastic to form each layer. The plastic
hardens immediately and bonds to the layer below.
The entire system is kept in an oven chamber. The temperature of oven is held
below the melting point of the plastic.
Support structures must be provided for overhanging geometries. They are
removed in secondary operations.

Applications of FDM
Functional prototypes for testing.
Small batches of parts in automotive, aerospace, and consumer goods.
Custom tools, jigs, and fixtures.
Custom objects, toys, and DIY projects.

M
Advantages of FDM
1) Simple and quiet process.

A
2) Fast process.

G
3) The product has greater strength.
4) Various types of materials can be used.
PA
IP
5) The production cost is comparatively less.
TH

Disadvantages of FDM
1) Support structures must be provided.
PA

2) Lower resolution parts.

3) Difficult to produce intricate designs.
L
A

5.5 Three Dimensional (3D) Printing

K

Liquid adhessive supply

Multichannel inkject head

Roller Fabrication powder bed

Powder Object being fabricated

delivery system
Build cylinder
Powder
delivery piston
Fabrication piston

Fig. 5.4 3D Printing

Unit – V  5.6
Working principle
3D printing consists of an inkjet printing system. The multi-channel jetting head
deposits a liquid adhesive compound onto the top layer of a bed of powder object
material. The particles of the powder become bonded in the areas where the
adhesive is deposited.
Once a layer is completed, the piston in the build cylinder moves down by the
thickness of a layer. The powder delivery piston moves upward incrementally to
supply powder. The roller spreads and compresses the powder on the top of the
build cylinder.
The process is repeated until the entire object is completed. After completion, the
object is elevated and the extra powder is brushed away. Thus a green object is
obtained. Parts must be infiltrated before they can be handled.

M
Applications of 3D printing

A
Working models for testing.

G
Custom jigs, fixtures, and tools.
PA
Medical devices, surgical guides and models
Lightweight components for aircrafts and automobiles.
IP

Scale models of buildings.

TH

Designs for clothing, shoes, and accessories

Custom components for robots
PA

Advantages of 3D printing
L

1) Different materials can be used.

A

2) Creating complex 3D shapes.

K

3) Printing of full colour prototypes.

4) Fastest method.
5) Equipment cost is less.
6) Easier to use.

Disadvantages of 3D printing
1) Requires post processing.
2) Limited size of product.
3) Lower mechanical strength.
4) Limited accuracy and tolerance.
5) Not suitable of mass production

Unit – V  5.7
5.6 Rapid tooling
Rapid Tooling (RT) is a process of producing moulds quickly using rapid prototyping
techniques and conventional tooling methods.

1) Direct method of rapid tooling

The tooling moulds are directly fabricated using a rapid prototyping process. It uses
the CAD model as the input. Stereolithography or selective laser sintering are
normally used for this purpose.
This method can reduces the number of steps in the process and increases
accuracy. Post-processing should be done to achieve the required surface finish.

2) Indirect method of rapid tooling

The parts produced by rapid prototyping can be used as master patterns for making
moulds. The accuracy of these production processes depends on the accuracy of

M
the additive process used to create the pattern. Accurate process such as

A
stereolithography can be used.

G
The pattern is suspended within a box. Molten silicone rubber is poured to fully
PA
surround the pattern. After solidification, the parting line is cut and the pattern is
removed. It produces the required cavity.
IP
TH

Applications
Cost-effective moulds for injection moulding, die casting, etc.
PA

Dies and punches for sheet metal forming processes.

Moulds and dies for prototype vehicle components.
L

Custom tools, jigs, and fixtures.

A

Moulds for medical devices, surgical instruments and guides.

K

Moulds for electronics enclosures.

Moulds for packaging prototypes.
Moulds for architectural models and construction elements.

Advantages of rapid tooling

1) Shorter tooling time.
2) Low cost.
3) Functional test of tool on design stage.
4) Design errors can be rectified easily.
5) Complex shapes can be produced.
6) Reduced material waste.

Unit – V  5.8
Disadvantages of rapid tooling
1) Shorter tool life.
2) Less accuracy and surface finish.
3) Lower strength.
4) Limited size of the tool.

5.7 Rapid manufacturing techniques

Rapid manufacturing involves the direct production of end-use parts using
techniques that accelerate the production process. The main techniques used in rapid
manufacturing are:

1) Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing)

Additive manufacturing builds parts layer by layer, using various materials such
as plastics, metals, and ceramics. It includes the following:

M
Stereolithography (SLA): Uses UV light to cure liquid resin layer by layer into a

A
solid object.

G
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS): Fuses powdered materials using a laser.
PA
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM): Extrudes thermoplastic material layer by
IP
layer.
TH

Applications
Prototypes for product design and testing.
PA

Lightweight components for aircrafts and automobiles.

Moulds, dies, and other tools.
L

Medical devices, implants and prosthetics

A
K

Scale models of buildings and architectural designs.

Personalized consumer products.
Physical models for science, engineering, and medical education.
Designs for jewelry, clothing, shoes, and accessories.

Advantages
1) Complex geometries can be produced.
2) Easily adapts to custom designs.
3) Minimal material waste.
4) Eliminates the need for moulds.
5) Rapid prototyping.

Unit – V  5.9
2) Vacuum casting
Vacuum casting method is used for creating high-quality, low-volume plastic
parts.

Process
Silicone mould creation: The master model is placed in a box, and liquid silicone
rubber is poured around it. After curing, the master model is removed. It creates a
mould cavity.
Casting: The silicone mould is filled with liquid plastic material. The mould is
placed inside a vacuum chamber to remove any trapped air bubbles.
Curing and demoulding: The cast material is allowed to cure at room
temperature. Then the mould is opened, and the finished part is removed.

M
Applications

A
Producing functional prototypes.

G
Prototyping parts for home electronics, and other consumer products
Prototypes of automotive parts. PA
Prototypes of medical devices and equipment.
IP

Small batches of prototype moulds or tools.

TH

Prototypes of watches, jewelry, etc.

PA

Advantages
1) Low-volume production
2) High quality surface finish
L
A

3) Rapid prototyping
K

4) Wide range of materials can be used.

3) Direct Energy Deposition (DED)

DED is an advanced additive manufacturing technique. It is used for repairs,
modifications, and producing large metal parts.

Process
Material feeding: Metal powder or wire is fed into a deposition head.
Energy source: A laser or electron beam melts the material as it is deposited.
Deposition and melting: The melted material is deposited onto a surface. Then it
is cooled and solidified. The process is repeated layer by layer until the entire part
is built up. A computer-controlled multi-axis system guides the deposition head.

Unit – V  5.10
Applications
Repairing worn or damaged parts.
Repairing military-grade equipment and components.
Repairing and manufacturing components used in oil, gas, and power generation.
Manufacturing implants and medical devices.
Producing large, complex tools, dies, and moulds.

Advantages
1) Ability to add material directly onto existing parts for repairs.
2) Capable of producing large parts.
3) Compatible with a wide range of metals.
4) Can deposit multiple materials in the same part.
5) Creating strong and durable parts

M
4) Binder jetting

A
Binder jetting is an additive manufacturing process that uses a liquid binding

G
agent to join powder particles and create a solid structure.

Process
PA
Powder layering: A thin layer of powder material is spread across the build
IP

platform.
TH

Binder deposition: A printhead moves across the powder bed and selectively
deposits a liquid binder onto the powder. It binds the particles together. The areas
PA

where the binder is applied form the part.

Layer-by-layer process: The platform lowers slightly, and another layer of powder
L

is spread. The binder is applied again, and this process is repeated layer by layer
A

until the part is fully formed.

K

Applications
Prototypes for testing.
Lightweight and complex parts for aircrafts and automobiles.
Moulds, dies, and fixtures.
Dental implants and prosthetics.
Architectural models and artistic sculptures.
Models for scientific education.
Complex circuit designs in electronics.

Advantages
1) High-speed production.
2) No need for support structures

Unit – V  5.11
 3) Can create complex geometries.
4) Suitable for both metals and ceramics.
5) Low energy consumption

5) Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)

LOM involves stacking layers of material and bonding them using heat and
pressure. Layers are cut to shape using lasers or a blade.

Process
Material feeding: A roll or sheet of material (paper, plastic, or metal) is fed into the
machine. The material is coated with an adhesive on one side.
Lamination: The sheet of material is bonded to the previous layer using heat and
pressure. This step laminates the material together, creating a solid block of layers.
Cutting: A laser or a mechanical blade cuts the outline of the part for each layer

M
according to the design.

A
Layer-by-layer building: The process repeats with new layers being laminated,

G
bonded, and cut, until the entire part is formed.
PA
Post-processing: After the part is built, excess material is removed. The part may
IP
undergo additional finishing steps, such as surface treatment or painting.
TH

Applications
Prototypes for testing.
PA

Architectural models.
Moulds, jigs, fixtures, and other tools.
L

Advantages
A

1) Low material cost

K

2) Fast build times

3) Large build volume
4) Minimal waste
5) No support structures

6) Blow moulding
Blow moulding is used to create hollow plastic parts such as bottles or containers.

Process
Preform creation: Thermoplastic material is heated until it becomes pliable and
the initial shape is formed.
Mould clamping: The preform is placed inside a mould.

Unit – V  5.12
 Inflation: Compressed air is blown into the preform. It causes the preform to
expand and take the shape of the mould.
Cooling and ejection: The mould cools the plastic. Then the part is ejected.

Applications
Plastic bottles and containers
Plastic fuel tanks for cars, motorcycles, and other vehicles.
Air ducts and reservoirs
Disposable medical equipments
Plastic toys, bins, water cans, toolboxes, etc.

Advantages
1) Cost-effective for high-volume production
2) Complex shapes can be easily produced.

M
3) Lightweight and strong products

A
4) Short production time

G
5) Reduced wastage
6) Ideal for producing uniform hollow parts PA
IP
7) Digital Light Processing (DLP)
TH

DLP is an additive manufacturing process that uses light to cure liquid

photopolymer resin layer by layer to create solid parts.
PA

Process
Resin vat: A vat is filled with liquid photopolymer resin.
L

Light projection: An ultra-violet (UV) light is projected onto the resin. The light
A

solidifies the resin where it hits.

K

Layer-by-layer process: Once a layer is cured, the build platform moves slightly
upward. Fresh resin flows over the cured layer. The next layer is projected and
cured.
Post-processing: After the object is fully built, it is removed and exposed to
additional UV light to improve its final material properties.

Applications
Detailed prototypes for consumer goods, electronics, and medical devices.
Dental crowns, bridges, and orthodontic devices.
Models for jewelry casting.
Custom parts in small batches.

Unit – V  5.13
Advantages
1) High precision.
2) Smooth surface finish.
3) Fast build time.
4) Wide range of materials.
5) Less waste.

8) PolyJet
PolyJet is an additive manufacturing technology that uses a photopolymer jetting
process to create highly detailed and multi-color parts with smooth surface finishes.

Process
Material jetting: The print head injects tiny droplets of liquid photopolymer material
onto the build platform.

M
UV curing: As the material is deposited, it is immediately cured by a UV light.

A
Layer-by-layer process: The print head moves accurately and deposits material

G
layer by layer. It builds up the part from bottom to top.

Applications
PA
IP
Prototyping for consumer goods, electronics, and medical devices.
Dental moulds, aligners, and prosthetics.
TH

Functional prototypes for testing and validation.

PA

Jigs, fixtures, and moulds in the production of small batches.

Advantages
L

1) Highly detailed and precise prototypes.

A

2) Parts with multi-material and colour can be produced.

K

3) Quick process.
4) No need for post-processing.
5) Transparent photopolymers can be used.

Unit – V  5.14
!
REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) What is rapid prototyping? Differentiate subtractive and additive rapid prototyping.

(Apr.11, Apr.23)
2) Name the materials commonly used in rapid prototyping.
3) List out the applications and advantages of rapid prototyping. (Oct.18, Apr.24)
4) Explain the stereolithography process with a line sketch. State its applications.
(Apr.16, Apr.18, Jun.21, Jun.22)
5) Explain the SLS process of rapid prototyping with a simple sketch. Give its
advantages. (Oct.24)
6) With a sketch, explain the working principle of Fused Deposition Modeling. List out
its applications and advantages. (Oct.16)

M
7) What is 3D printing? Explain its working principle. State its advantages.
(Apr.11, Apr.12, Oct.15, Oct.18)

A
8) Write short notes on rapid tooling.

G
PA
9) Briefly explain any three rapid manufacturing techniques.
IP
 
TH
PA
L
A
K

Unit – V  5.15
 ONE MARK QUESTIONS
AND ANSWERS FOR MCQ

Unit – I
TYPES OF PLASTICS AND
PROCESSING OF PLASTICS
1. Plastic is a material consisting of _____.
Ans: synthetic organic polymers
2. In a polymer, many molecules are bonded together in_____.

M
Ans: long repeating chains

A
3. Plastics that become soft on heating, melt on heating and can be moulded

G
again and again are known as_____.
Ans: thermoplastics
PA
IP
4. Thermoplastics are ____ polymers.
TH

Ans: addition
5. Thermoplastics have _____ molecular structure.
PA

Ans: long chain

6. _____ can be softened on heating but they become permanently hard on
L

cooling.
A

Ans: Thermosetting plastics

K

7. Thermosetting plastics are ____ polymers.

Ans: condensation
8. Thermosetting plastics have _____ molecular structure.
Ans: cross linked
9. ABS is a _____.
Ans: thermoplastic
10. Bakelite is _____.
Ans: thermoset.
11. In plastic composites, plastic is _____ material.
Ans: matrix

1 Mark Questions & Answers  Q&A.1

12. GFRP stands for _____.
Ans: Glass fiber-reinforced plastic
13. Structural foam is created by mixing a polymer with a _____.
Ans: blowing agent.
14. Thermoplastic rubbers are called as _____.
Ans: elastomers.
15. The curing process of elastomers is called _____.
Ans: vulcanization.
16. Silicone rubber is an _____.
Ans: elastomer.
17. Liquid crystal polymers are based on _____.
Ans: thermoplastic aromatic polyesters.

M
A
18. Vectra is a commercial name for _____.

G
Ans: liquid crystal polymer.
PA
19. The machine used for the extrusion of polymers is _____.
Ans: extruder.
IP

20. In extruder, _____ feeds the material.

TH

Ans: hopper
21. The raw material for extruder is _____.
PA

Ans: plastic powder or granules.

22. What is the function of barrel in extruder?
L
A

Ans: It houses the screw and acts as a container for the material.
K

23. What is the function of screw in extruder?

Ans: It rotates and moves the material through the barrel.
24. Twin screw extruder has _____ screws.
Ans: two
25. In a counter-rotating twin screw extruder, the screws rotate in ____ directions.
Ans: opposite
26. What is the function of plunger in plunger type injection moulding?
Ans: It pushes the molten plastic from the heating chamber into the mould.
27. The raw material in plunger type injection moulding is _____.
Ans: plastic powder or pellets.

1 Mark Questions & Answers  Q&A.2

28. The function of torpedo in injection moulding is_____.
Ans: to split up mass of the material in the barrel.
29. What is the function of screw in reciprocating screw injection moulding?
Ans: It rotates and moves back and forth within the barrel.
30. The function of nozzle in injection moulding is _____.
Ans: to inject the molten plastic in to the mould.
31. The method used to produce plastic parts with a cellular core and a solid
outer skin is known as _____.
Ans: structural foam injection moulding.
32. The raw material in structural foam injection moulding is _____.
Ans: Plastic resin + foaming agent.
33. The method used for injecting two different types of plastic materials into a
mould to create a product with a layered structure is called _____.

M
Ans: sandwich moulding.

A
34. The injection moulding method used to create hollow parts is _____.

G
Ans: Gas injection moulding.
PA
35. The raw material in gas injection moulding is in the form of _____.
IP
Ans: molten plastic.
TH

36. _____ process is used to produce thin sheets or films of plastic material.
Ans: Calendaring
PA

37. The raw material in calendaring is in the form of _____.

Ans: thermoplastic resin.
L

38. _____ is used to create seamless hollow plastic products.

A

Ans: Rotational moulding

K

39. The raw material in rotational moulding is in the form of _____.

Ans: powdered plastic resin.

1 Mark Questions & Answers  Q&A.3

 Unit – II
MODERN MACHINING, SUPER FINISHING
AND SURFACE TREATMENT PROCESSES
1. Modern machining processes are used to produce parts with _____.
Ans: high precision
2. _____ is used for producing components with tolerances in the range of
micrometers.
Ans: Precision machining
3. Precision machining is used for producing components with tolerances in
the range of _____.
Ans: micrometers (µm).

M
4. Precision machining is used for producing components with _____ in the

A
range of micrometers.

G
Ans: tolerances
5. PA
_____ is used for producing components with tolerances in the range of
nanometers.
IP

Ans: Ultra-precision machining

TH

6. Ultra-precision machining is used for producing components with tolerances

in the range of _____.
PA

Ans: nanometers.
7. Ultra-precision machining is used for producing components with _____ in
L

the range of nanometers.

A

Ans: tolerances
K

8. Ion beam machining is a type of _____ machining process.

Ans: ultra-precision
9. _____ is an example of ultra-precision machining process.
Ans: Atomic Layer Deposition
10. _____ is used to create components with dimensions in the range of
micrometers.
Ans: Micro machining
11. Micro machining is used to create components with _____ in the range of
micrometers.
Ans: dimensions

1 Mark Questions & Answers  Q&A.4

12. Micro machining is used to create components with dimensions in the range
of _____.
Ans: micrometers.
13. EDM is a type of _____ machining process.
Ans: micro
14. _____ is an example of micro machining.
Ans: Focused Ion Beam (FIB) Machining
15. _____ is used to create components with dimensions in the range of
nanometers.
Ans: Nano machining
16. Nano machining is used to create components with _____ in the range of
nanometers.

M
Ans: dimensions

A
17. Nano machining is used to create components with dimensions in the range
of _____.

G
Ans: nanometers. PA
18. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) Nanomachining is a type of _____ process.
IP
Ans: nano machining
TH

19. _____ is an example of nano machining.

Ans: Electron Beam Lithography (EBL)
PA

20. _____ refers to the process of machining materials at higher speeds, feeds, and
cutting rates.
L

Ans: High-speed machining (HSM)

A

21. In high speed machining, the spindle speeds ranges from____ to _____.
K

Ans: 10,000 to 1,00,000 RPM.

22. Shallow depth of cut refers_____.
Ans: less than 1 mm per pass.
23. In _____, heat is applied to a workpiece before or during machining.
Ans: hot machining
24. Heat is applied to workpiece in hot machining for_____.
Ans: making the workpiece easier to cut.
25. Hot machining is used for machining _____ materials.
Ans: hard

1 Mark Questions & Answers  Q&A.5

26. The heat source in hot machining includes _____.
Ans: induction heating, laser heating, flame heating, or plasma arc heating.
27. _____ process is used to improve the surface finish and dimensional
accuracy of components.
Ans: Superfinishing
28. The common superfinishing processes include _____.
Ans: honing, lapping, burnishing, polishing and buffing.
29. Honing process is used to improve the surface finish of _____ surfaces.
Ans: internal cylindrical
30. Honing tool consists of _____.
Ans: a set of abrasive stones.
31. Lapping involves the rubbing of two surfaces together with _____ material

M
between them.

A
Ans: abrasive

G
32. The types of a lapping include _____.
PA
Ans: hand lapping, machine lapping, single-sided lapping and double-sided lapping.
33. _____ process is used for finishing lenses, mirrors and prisms.
IP

Ans: Lapping
TH

34. _____ is a process that involves polishing or rubbing a surface to achieve a

smooth and shiny finish.
PA

Ans: Burnishing
35. Say true or false: Material is not removed in burnishing process.
L

Ans: True.
A
K

36. The two types of burnishing machines are _____.

Ans: roller burnishing machine and ball burnishing machine.
37. _____ is the process of refining and smoothing a surface to improve its
appearance and functional properties.
Ans: Polishing
38. In polishing process, _____ are used to remove fine layers of material.
Ans: abrasives
39. Polishing pads are made of _____.
Ans: felt, wool, or synthetic materials.
40. _____ is a surface finishing process used to smooth the surface of a material
by using a soft wheel.
Ans: Buffing

1 Mark Questions & Answers  Q&A.6

41. The soft wheel used in buffing process is called _____.
Ans: buff.
42. _____ is the final step after polishing to achieve the desired level of shine
and smoothness.
Ans: Buffing
43. Surface hardening is used to _____.
Ans: increase the hardness of the outer layer of a material.
44. In carburizing, the metal part is heated in a _____.
Ans: carbon-rich environment.
45. The process of rapid cooling is known as _____.
Ans: quenching.
46. The commonly used quenching medium are _____.

M
Ans: water, oil, and brine solution.

A
47. _____ is the process of infusing nitrogen in to the surface of a metal.

G
Ans: Nitriding
PA
48. Say true or false: Nitriding process needs quenching.
IP
Ans: False.
49. In induction hardening, the metal surface is heated rapidly using _____.
TH

Ans: electromagnetic induction.

PA

50. In flame hardening, the surface is heated using _____.

Ans: a high-temperature flame.
L

51. _____ method is used for surface hardening of large components.

A

Ans: Flame hardening.

K

52. In laser hardening, _____ is used to heat the surface of the material.
Ans: a high-power laser beam
53. In plasma nitriding, nitrogen is introduced in a _____ state.
Ans: plasma
54. Carbonitriding is a hybrid process of _____.
Ans: carburizing and nitriding.
55. _____ is a surface treatment process used to improve the fatigue strength.
Ans: Shot peening
56. Shot peening involves bombarding the surface of a workpiece with _____.
Ans: small spherical shots at high velocity.

1 Mark Questions & Answers  Q&A.7

57. Shot peening induces _____ on the surface layer.
Ans: compressive residual stresses
58. Galvanizing is a process of coating a layer of _____.
Ans: zinc
59. _____ is the process of removing rust and scale.
Ans: Pickling
60. Fluxing is the process used to remove _____.
Ans: oxides.
61. In galvanizing, the molten zinc is kept around a temperature of _____.
Ans: 450°C
62. Powder coating is a _____ process.
Ans: dry finishing

M
A
63. In powder coating, the powder particles are given _____.

G
Ans: an electrostatic charge.
PA
64. In powder coating, the powder adheres to the surface due to the _____.
Ans: electrostatic forces.
IP

65. _____ is a coating process used to apply a molten or heated material onto a
TH

surface by spraying.
Ans: Thermal spraying
PA

66. The heat source in thermal spraying includes _____.

Ans: plasma torch, combustion flame and electric arc.
L

67. _____ process is used to deposit thin films of materials on to the workpiece
A

surface.
K

Ans: Vapour deposition

68. CVD creates solid thin films on a workpiece through _____.
Ans: chemical reactions in the vapour phase.
69. PVD deposits thin films or coatings onto a workpiece surface through _____.
Ans: physical transfer of material.
70. In PVD, the processes used to vapourize the material include _____.
Ans: evaporation, sputtering, and arc discharge
71. Sputtering is a type of _____ technique.
Ans: Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)

1 Mark Questions & Answers  Q&A.8

72. In sputtering, material from a solid target is discharged through _____.
Ans: bombardment of high-energy ions.
73. _____ is a process that uses electrical current to deposit a thin layer of metal
onto the surface of an object.
Ans: Electroplating
74. In electroplating, the plating material is called as _____.
Ans: anode
75. In electroplating, the object to be plated is called _____.
Ans: cathode.
76. To deposit copper on the object, the electrolyte should be _____.
Ans: copper sulphate.
77. In electroplating, the object is connected to _____ terminal.

M
Ans: negative

A
78. In electroplating, the metal to be plated is connected to _____ terminal.

G
Ans: positive
PA
79. _____ is the process of covering one material with another material.
IP
Ans: Cladding
TH

80. Bonding a layer of metal onto the surface of another metal is known as _____.
Ans: metal cladding.
PA

81. Covering a roof with tiles or metal sheets is called _____.

Ans: roof cladding.
L

82. Bonding dissimilar metals using high-energy explosions is called _____.

A
K

Ans: explosion cladding.

83. The underlying structure to which the cladding is attached is known as _____.
Ans: substrate.
84. _____ is a process used for coating a base metal with a layer of another metal.
Ans: Hot dipping
85. In _____, steel or iron is coated with zinc.
Ans: hot dip galvanizing
86. Aluminum is used as the coating metal in _____.
Ans: hot-dip aluminizing
87. _____ is used to produce tinplate.
Ans: Hot-dip tin coating

1 Mark Questions & Answers  Q&A.9

88. _____ is the process of applying coatings to products for visual appearance
and protective purposes.
Ans: Painting
89. Paint is sprayed onto the surface using high-pressure air in _____.
Ans: spray painting
90. In _____, a dry powder is electrostatically charged and sprayed onto the part.
Ans: powder coating
91. In _____, parts are dipped into a tank of paint.
Ans: dip coating

Unit – III

M
UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES

A
G
1. The processes used for machining hard materials easily are known as _____.
Ans: unconventional machining processes. PA
2. The method of metal removal in abrasive jet machining is _____.
IP

Ans: mechanical erosion.

TH

3. In AJM, _____ is used to remove the material.

Ans: high velocity stream of abrasive particles
PA

4. The carrier gases used in AJM are _____.

Ans: Air, nitrogen or CO2
L
A

5. _____ can be used as abrasive particles in AJM.

K

Ans: Aluminium oxide, silicon carbide and glass powder

6. In water jet machining, _____ is used to remove the material.
Ans: high pressure and high velocity stream of water
7. The function of accumulator in WJM is _____.
Ans: to store the water and eliminate pulsation.
8. In WJM, the material is removed when the pressure of water jet exceeds _____.
Ans: ultimate shear stress of material.
9. WJM is used for cutting _____ materials.
Ans: soft and non-metallic
10. The method of metal removal in ultrasonic machining is _____.
Ans: abrasion and erosion.

1 Mark Questions & Answers  Q&A.10

11. The function of generator in USM is _____.
Ans: to convert low frequency (50 Hz) current into very high frequency (20,000 Hz)
current
12. The transducer in USM converts the high frequency current into _____.
Ans: mechanical vibrations.
13. In USM, the shape to be produced on the workpiece is formed at the _____.
Ans: end of the tool.
14. The suitable process to produce holes in glass is _____.
Ans: Ultrasonic machining.
15. The method of metal removal in EDM is _____.
Ans: spark erosion.
16. The dielectric fluids used in EDM are _____.

M
Ans: kerosene, mineral oil, white spirit or paraffin.

A
17. In EDM, the work piece is connected to the _____ terminal

G
Ans: positive
18. The tool used in EDM is _____.
PA
IP
Ans: hollow
TH

19. The purpose of hole in the tool used in EDM is _____.

Ans: to supply dielectric fluid.
PA

20. In EDM, the gap between the tool and workpiece is maintained as _____.
Ans: 0.005 mm to 0.05 mm
L

21. The method of metal removal in electron beam machining is _____.

A
K

Ans: melting and vaporization

22. EBM is done in a _____ chamber.
Ans: vacuum
23. The use of focusing lens in EBM is _____.
Ans: to focus the electron beam at the desired location.
24. The function of anode in EBM is _____.
Ans: to accelerate the electrons.
25. In EBM, the kinetic energy of high velocity electrons is converted into _____.
Ans: heat energy.
26. LASER is an acronym of _____.
Ans: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

1 Mark Questions & Answers  Q&A.11

27. LASER is is a beam of light having _____.
Ans: same wavelength.
28. The method of metal removal in LBM is _____.
Ans: melting and vaporization.
29. In LBM, the flash lamb is filled with _____.
Ans: xenon gas.
30. In LBM, _____ emits laser beam.
Ans: ruby crystal
31. The method suitable for producing very fine and minute holes is _____.
Ans: Laser Beam Machining.
32. The ionized gas is called _____.
Ans: plasma

M
A
33. The method of metal removal in plasma arc machining is _____.

G
Ans: melting.
PA
34. In PAM, the electrode is connected to _____ terminal.
Ans: negative
IP

35. In PAM, the nozzle and workpiece are connected to ____ terminal.
TH

Ans: positive
36. In PAM, electric spark is produced between the _____.
PA

Ans: nozzle and electrode.

37. The gas used in PAM is _____.
L
A

Ans: H2, N2 or O2
K

38. In PAM, the molten metal is removed due to _____.

Ans: the high velocity of plasma.
39. The method of metal removal in chemical machining is _____.
Ans: chemical etching.
40. The process of covering the portions of work piece which are not to be
machined is known as _____.
Ans: masking.
41. In chemical machining, the masking will be made from _____.
Ans: vinyl, neoprene or rubber sheet.
42. The hot chemical used in chemical machining is called _____.
Ans: etchant.

1 Mark Questions & Answers  Q&A.12

43. _____ is used as etchant for chemical machining of aluminium.
Ans: Caustic soda
44. The etchant converts the metal in to its ______.
Ans: metal salt.
45. Electro Chemical Machining is the reverse process of _____.
Ans: electro plating.
46. in electro chemical machining the work piece is connected to _____ terminal.
Ans: positive (anode)
47. The method of metal removal in ECM process is _____.
Ans: electrolytic dissolution
48. In ECM, electrons are released from _____.
Ans: workpiece.

M
49. In ECM, the gap between the tool and workpiece is maintained as _____.

A
Ans: 0.2 mm to 0.4 mm.

G
PA
Unit – IV
IP

CNC MACHINES AND CNC PROGRAMMING

TH

1. Numerical control (NC) system is a method of automation in which various

PA

functions of machine tools are controlled by _____.

Ans: letters, numbers and symbols.
L

2. CNC stands for _____.

A

Ans: Computer Numerical Control.

K

3. CNC utilizes a _____ to perform the basic numerical control functions.

Ans: dedicated microcomputer
4. _____ is the list of instructions written in the numerical codes.
Ans: Part program
5. MCU stands for _____.
Ans: Machine Control Unit.
6. The function of MCU is _____.
Ans: to read the part program and convert it into mechanical actions of the machine tool.
7. ATC stands for _____.
Ans: Automatic Tool Changer.

1 Mark Questions & Answers  Q&A.13

8. A machine tool capable of performing various turning and related operations
under CNC system is called _____.
Ans: CNC turning centre
9. A combined machine tool which can perform the turning and milling
operations in the same machine tool is known as _____.
Ans: turn–mill centre
10. Twin-turret turning centre is provided with _____ turrets.
Ans: two
11. _____ is a rotating tool holder that can accommodate multiple cutting tools.
Ans: Turret
12. A machine tool capable of performing various multiple machining operations
under CNC system is called _____.

M
Ans: CNC machining centre

A
13. _____ has the capability of tilting the spindle axis from horizontal to vertical
position.

G
Ans: Universal machining centre PA
14. _____ is a storage system that holds multiple cutting tools.
IP
Ans: Tool magazine
TH

15. The Z-axis motion is _____.

Ans: along the spindle axis.
PA

16. The positive Z motion _____ the clearance between the tool holder and work
piece surface.
L

Ans: increases
A

17. The principal motion direction of cutting tool or the work piece is designated
K

as _____.
Ans: X–axis.
18. When looking from the principal spindle to the column, the positive (+) X is to the
_____.
Ans: Right.
19. For turning centres, X-axis is _____.
Ans: radial and parallel to the cross slide.
20. The direction of Y-axis is identified by _____.
Ans: the right hand Cartesian coordinate system.

1 Mark Questions & Answers  Q&A.14

21. _____ is a device used to measure the physical geometrical characteristics
of an object.
Ans: Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)
22. The main sensing device of a CMM is _____.
Ans: probe.
23. Common CMM structures include _____.
Ans: bridge type, cantilever type, gantry type and horizontal arm type.
24. _____ are used to determine the exact position of the probe in CMM.
Ans: Encoders
25. DMIS stands for _____.
Ans: Dimensional Measuring Interface Standard
26. _____ is a protocol that permits two–way communication between CAD

M
systems and CMM.

A
Ans: Dimensional Measuring Interface Standard (DMIS)

G
27. The two types of coordinates system used in CNC machines are _____.
PA
Ans: Cartesian coordinate system and Polar coordinate system
IP
28. The guiding coordinate system followed for designating the axes is _____.
Ans: the right hand coordinate system.
TH

29. _____ define points by giving their angle from a base line and a distance from
PA

a particular point.
Ans: Polar coordinates
L

30. In _____ positioning, the coordinates of a point are always defined with
A

respect to the origin.

K

Ans: absolute
31. In _____ positioning, the coordinates of a point are always defined relative to
the previous point.
Ans: incremental
32. In a part program, the program number can be a maximum of _____.
Ans: four digits.
33. In a part program, the block number is identified with a letter _____.
Ans: N
34. Parentheses are used to add _____ in a part program
Ans: comments

1 Mark Questions & Answers  Q&A.15

35. _____ are preset function associated with the movement of machine axes
and the associated geometry.
Ans: G-codes
36. _____ G-codes remain operational till cancelled by another G codes from the
same group.
Ans: Modal
37. _____ G-codes remain operational in the block in which they are
programmed.
Ans: Non-modal
38. _____ functions operate some controls on the machine tool.
Ans: Miscellaneous
39. Homing is the process of sending all axis of the CNC machine to _____.
Ans: home position.

M
40. Homing is also known as _____ the machine.

A
Ans: zeroing

G
41. The command used in CNC milling to move the axes to home position is _____.
Ans: G28 X0 Y0 Z0. PA
42. The command used in CNC turning to move the axes to home position is _____.
IP
Ans: G28 U0 W0.
TH

43. In turning machines, _____ is the Z-axis distance from the Machine
Coordinate System (MCS) zero to the Work Coordinate System (WCS) zero.
PA

Ans: Workpiece offset

44. In milling machines, _____ work offset is set first.
L

Ans: Z-axis
A

45. The work offset for the X-axis and Y-axis can be set by locating the work
K

piece with an _____.

Ans: edge finder.
46. _____ is used as reference point to measure the tool length.
Ans: The top surface of the work piece (Z-zero)
47. In _____, all the movements of the tool along X–axis should be doubled.
Ans: diameter programming
48. The home position in turning centre is _____.
Ans: the intersection of spindle axis and clamping plane.
49. The difference between the tool tip position and the turret datum is termed
as_____.
Ans: tool offset.

1 Mark Questions & Answers  Q&A.16

50. The miscellaneous function used for tool selection is _____.
Ans: M06
51. The G-codes for constant surface speed and RPM are respectively _____.
Ans: G96 & G97
52. The G-code to set the maximum spindle speed is _____.
Ans: G50
53. The G-codes to specify the feed in mm/min and mm/rev are respectively
_____.
Ans: G98 & G99
54. The G-code used for rapid positioning simultaneously in all the axes is _____.
Ans: G00
55. _____ method is used for generating straight line path.

M
Ans: Linear interpolation

A
56. _____ method is used for generating circular path.

G
Ans: Circular interpolation
PA
57. The G-code used for linear interpolation is _____.
IP
Ans: G01
TH

58. The format of G01 is _____.

Ans: G01 X_ Z_ F_
PA

59. The G-code used for clockwise circular interpolation is _____.

Ans: G02
L

60. The format of G02 is _____.

A
K

Ans: G02 X_ Z_ R_ F_ (or) G02 X_ Z_ I_ K_ F_

61. The G-code used for counter-clockwise circular interpolation is _____.
Ans: G03
62. The miscellaneous function used for SPINDLE ON – FORWARD is _____.
Ans: M03
63. The miscellaneous function used for SPINDLE STOP is _____.
Ans: M05
64. The miscellaneous function used for PROGRAM END is _____.
Ans: M30
65. The G-code used for setting program zero point in milling is _____.
Ans: G92

1 Mark Questions & Answers  Q&A.17

66. The G-code for Cutter radius compensation off is _____.
Ans: G40
67. The G-code for Cutter radius compensation left is _____.
Ans: G41
68. The G-code for Cutter radius compensation right is _____.
Ans: G42

Unit – V
RAPID PROTOTYPING
1. A manufacturing technique used to quickly create models or simulations of

M
a product is called _____.

A
Ans: Rapid prototyping

G
2. In _____ process, 3D objects are constructed by successively cutting
PA
material away from a solid block of material.
Ans: subtractive manufacturing
IP

3. In _____ process, 3D objects are constructed by successively adding layers

TH

of material.
Ans: additive manufacturing
PA

4. Stereolithography process uses a _____ method to create three-dimensional

objects from liquid resin.
L

Ans: photochemical
A

5. The material used in stereolithography process is _____.

K

Ans: liquid photopolymer resin.

6. In stereolithography process, _____ is used to turn the liquid resin into solid.
Ans: laser light
7. In stereolithography process, the laser beam is moved in the X-Y directions
by a _____.
Ans: scanner system.
8. SLS stands for _____.
Ans: Selective Laser Sintering.
9. In SLS process, _____ is used to sinter powder material to form a solid structure.
Ans: laser

1 Mark Questions & Answers  Q&A.18

10. The material used in SLS process is _____.
Ans: thermoplastic powder.
11. In SLS process, the entire chamber is maintained at a temperature just below
the _____ of plastic powder.
Ans: melting point
12. The function of the roller in SLS process is to _____.
Ans: spread and compress the powder on the top of the build cylinder.
13. FDM stands for _____.
Ans: Fused Deposition Modeling
14. In FDM process, the object is built layer by layer by depositing melted
thermoplastic filament through a _____.
Ans: heated nozzle

M
15. The material used in FDM process is _____.

A
Ans: thermoplastic filament.

G
16. In FDM process, _____ must be provided for overhanging geometries.
Ans: support structures
PA
IP
17. 3D printing consists of _____.
Ans: an inkjet printing system.
TH

18. In 3D printing, the multi-channel jetting head deposits a _____.

PA

Ans: liquid adhesive compound

19. The parts made by 3D printing must be _____ before they can be handled.
L

Ans: infiltrated
A

20. The process used for producing moulds quickly using rapid prototyping
K

techniques is known as _____.

Ans: Rapid Tooling (RT)
21. The tooling moulds are directly fabricated in _____.
Ans: direct method of rapid tooling.
22. In indirect method of rapid tooling, the parts produced can be used as _____.
Ans: master patterns for making moulds.
23. In vacuum casting, _____ mould is used.
Ans: silicone
24. In vacuum casting, the mould is placed in a vacuum chamber to _____.
Ans: remove any trapped air bubbles.

1 Mark Questions & Answers  Q&A.19

25. _____ is a rapid manufacturing technique used for repair works.
Ans: Direct Energy Deposition (DED)
26. The energy source in DED process for melting the material is _____.
Ans: laser or electron beam.
27. _____ is an additive manufacturing process that uses a liquid binding agent
to join powder particles and create a solid structure.
Ans: Binder jetting
28. _____ process involves stacking layers of material and bonding them using
heat and pressure.
Ans: Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
29. The material used in LOM process in in the form of _____.
Ans: roll or sheet.

M
30. The process used for creating hollow plastic parts is known as _____.

A
Ans: blow moulding.

G
31. DLP is an additive manufacturing process that uses _____ to cure liquid
PA
photopolymer resin layer by layer to create solid parts.
Ans: light
IP

32. _____ light is used in Digital Light Processing.

TH

Ans: Ultra-violet
PA

33. _____ is a photopolymer jetting process used to create multi-color parts.

Ans: PolyJet
L

 
A
K

1 Mark Questions & Answers  Q&A.20

 MODEL QUESTION PAPERS
CON TIN UO US A S S E S S M EN T T ES T – 1
WR I T T EN T ES T

Course : IV Semester Mechanical Engg. Time : 2 Hrs.

Subject : Advanced Manufacturing Technology Max. Marks : 50

[N.B: (1) Answer ANY FIVE questions.

(2) All questions carry equal marks. (5 × 10 = 50)

1. a) Differentiate between thermoplastic and thermoset plastic.

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b) What is meant by elastomers? Explain.

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2. With a neat sketch, explain the functioning of twin screw extruder.

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3. Briefly explain the structural foam injection moulding method.
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4. Explain the rotational moulding with a neat sketch.
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5. Briefly explain high speed machining. State its applications.

6. What is lapping? Explain its working with a neat sketch.

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7. Explain the CVD process with a neat sketch. State its applications.
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8. What is hot dipping? Explain its working principle with a sketch.

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Question Papers  QP.1

 CON TIN UO US A S S E S S M EN T T ES T – 2
WR I T T EN T ES T

Course : IV Semester Mechanical Engg. Time : 2 Hrs.

Subject : Advanced Manufacturing Technology Max. Marks : 50

[N.B: (1) Answer ANY FIVE questions.

(2) All questions carry equal marks. (5 × 10 = 50)

1. Explain the construction and working principle of abrasive jet machining process
with a neat sketch.
2. Explain the principle of operation of electrical discharge machining with neat sketch.

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3. Explain the working principle of electron beam machining process with neat sketch.

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4. Explain the working principle of electro chemical machining process. State its

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applications.
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5. Explain the working principle of CNC system.
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6. Explain the construction and working of CNC machining centre.

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7. Write the procedure for work offset setting in in CNC turning machine.
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8. Write a part program to produce a component in a CNC milling machine using linear
interpolation and circular interpolation with an example.
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A
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Question Papers  QP.2

 CON TIN UO US A S S E S S M EN T T ES T – 3

QU IZ / M UL T IP L E C H OIC E Q U ES TI ON S

Course : IV Semester Mechanical Engg. Time : 1 Hr.

Subject : Advanced Manufacturing Technology Max. Marks : 60

[N.B: (1) Answer ALL questions by choosing the correct answer from the given choices.
(2) Each question carries one mark. (60 × 1 = 60)

1. Thermoplastics have _____ molecular structure.

a) octahedral b) long chain c) cross linked d) tetrahedral
2. _____ can be softened on heating but they become permanently hard on

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cooling.

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a) Thermosetting plastics b) Thermo plastics

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c) Structural foam d) Elastomers
3. Which of the following is not a thermoplastic?
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a) Polyamide b) ABS c) Bakelite d) Polysulfone

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4. Thermoplastic rubbers are called as _____.

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a) thermosets b) LCP c) elastomers d) composites

5. Structural foam is created by mixing a polymer with a _____.
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a) electrolyte b) blowing agent c) flux d) de-oxidizer

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6. Vectra is commercial name for _____.

a) LCP b) elastomer c) composite d) structural foam
7. In extruder, _____ feeds the material.
a) hopper b) barrel c) screw d) plunger
8. In a counter-rotating twin screw extruder, the screws rotate in ____ directions.
a) same b) opposite c) clockwise d) anti-clockwise
9. The raw material in plunger type injection moulding is _____.
a) plastic resin b) molten plastic c) plastic powder d) plastic filament

Question Papers  QP.3

10. The method used to produce plastic parts with a cellular core and a solid
outer skin is known as _____.
a) extrusion b) casting
c) sandwich moulding d) structural foam injection moulding
11. The injection moulding method used to create hollow parts is _____.
a) gas injection moulding b) sandwich moulding
c) rotational moulding d) calendaring
12. _____ process is used to produce thin sheets or films of plastic material.
a) sandwich moulding b) calendaring
c) extrusion d) rotational moulding
13. Which one of the following is not a modern machining process?

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a) Precision machining b) nano machining

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c) hot machining d) milling

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14. Precision machining is used for producing components with tolerances in
the range of _____.
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a) millimeters b) micrometers c) nanometers d) none of the above
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15. EDM is a type of _____ machining process.

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a) micro b) nano c) hot d) precision

16. Nano machining is used to create components with _____ in the range of
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nanometers.
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a) tolerances b) dimensions c) deviations d) none of the above

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17. Heat is applied to a workpiece before or during machining in _____.

a) high speed machining b) hot machining
c) precision machining d) buffing
18. Which one of the following is not a super finishing process?
a) Honing b) Lapping d) Burnishing d) Turning

19. Honing process is used to improve the surface finish of _____ surfaces.
a) internal cylindrical b) external cylindrical c) flat d) irregular
20. Say true or false: Material is not removed in burnishing process.
a) True b) False

Question Papers  QP.4

21. The final step after polishing to achieve the desired level of shine and
smoothness is _____.
a) honing b) buffing c) grinding d) burnishing
22. Surface hardening is used to increase the hardness of _____.
a) entire material b) inner layer of material
c) outer layer of material d) none of the above.
23. The surface treatment process used to improve the fatigue strength is _____.
a) carburizing b) nitriding c) cladding d) shot peening
24. Galvanizing is a process of coating a layer of _____.
a) zinc b) aluminium c) copper d) tin

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25. Which one of the following is not an unconventional machining process?

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a) Abrasive Jet Machining b) Electrical Discharge Machining

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c) Surface Grinding d) Laser Beam Machining
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26. The method of metal removal in abrasive jet machining is _____.
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a) mechanical erosion b) melting and vaporization
c) abrasion and erosion d) spark erosion
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27. _____ can be used as abrasive particles in AJM.

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a) Aluminium oxide b) Silicon carbide c) Glass powder d) All of the above

28. In WJM, the material is removed when the pressure of water jet exceeds _____
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of the material.
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a) yield stress b) ultimate shear stress

c) breaking stress d) none of the above
29. The method of metal removal is abrasion and erosion in ____ machining.
a) WJM b) USM c) ECM d) EBM
30. The transducer in USM converts the high frequency current into _____.
a) low frequency current b) high voltage
c) mechanical vibrations d) none of the above
31. In EDM, the work piece is connected to the _____ terminal
a) positive b) negative c) either positive or negative d) none of the above

Question Papers  QP.5

32. The purpose of hole in the tool used in EDM is to supply _____.
a) abrasives b) coolant c) dielectric fluid d) compressed air
33. _____ process is done in a vacuum chamber.
a) EDM b) EBM c) ECM d) AJM
34. The method of metal removal in LBM is _____.
a) mechanical erosion b) melting and vaporization
c) abrasion and erosion d) spark erosion
35. In PAM, electric spark is produced between the _____.
a) workpiece and tool b) workpiece and electrode
c) nozzle and electrode d) tool and electrode
36. The hot chemical used in chemical machining is called _____.

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a) electrolyte b) dielectric fluid c) solvent d) etchant

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37. The list of instructions written in the numerical codes is called _____.

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a) input list b) machine program c) part program d) database
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38. ATC stands for _____.
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a) Advanced Tool Carriage b) Automatic Tool Changer

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c) Advanced Tool Changer d) Automatic Tool Carriage

39. A combined machine tool which can perform the turning and milling
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operations in the same machine tool is known as _____.

a) universal machining centre b) hybrid turning centre
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c) Turn-mill centre d) advanced machining centre

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40. The principal motion direction of cutting tool or the work piece is designated
as _____.
a) X-axis b) Y-axis c) Z-axis d) none of the above
41. The main sensing device of a CMM is _____.
a) arm b) probe c) stylus d) structure

42. _____ are used to determine the exact position of the probe in CMM.
a) transducers b) recorders c) encoders d) decoders
43. The guiding coordinate system followed for designating the axes is _____.
a) right hand coordinate system b) left hand coordinated system
c) cartesian coordinate system d) polar coordinate system

Question Papers  QP.6

44. In _____ positioning, the coordinates of a point are always defined with
respect to the origin.
a) absolute b) incremental c) relative d) polar
45. The command used in CNC turning to move the axes to home position is _____.
a) G28 X0 Z0 b) G28 U0 V0 c) G28 U0 W0 d) G00 X0 Z0
46. The difference between the tool tip position and the turret datum is termed
as_____.
a) work offset b) tool offset c) tool length compensation d) turret offset
47. The miscellaneous function used for tool selection is _____.
a) M06 b) M30 c) M03 d) M05

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48. The G-code to set the maximum spindle speed is _____.

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a) G00 b) G40 c) G41 d) G50

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49. A manufacturing technique used to quickly create models or simulations of
a product is called _____.
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a) rapid manufacturing b) rapid prototyping
c) quick manufacturing d) none of the above
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50. In _____ process, 3D objects are constructed by successively adding layers

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of material.
a) additive manufacturing b) subtractive manufacturing
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c) layer manufacturing d) constructive manufacturing

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51. The following process uses photochemical method to create three-

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dimensional objects from liquid resin.

a) Stereolithography b) Selective Laser Sintering
c) Fused Deposition Modelling d) 3D printing
52. SLS stands for _____.
a) Stereo Litho Sintering b) Selective Laser Sintering
c) Selective Laser Sizing d) Selective Light Sintering
53. The material used in SLS process is _____.
a) photopolymer resin b) thermoplastic powder
c) thermoplastic filament d) none of the above

Question Papers  QP.7

54. Support structures must be provided for overhanging geometries in _____
process.
a) Selective Laser Sintering b) Fused Deposition Modelling
c) 3D printing d) Stereolithography
55. The material used in FDM process is _____.
a) photopolymer resin b) thermoplastic powder
c) thermoplastic filament d) none of the above
56. The parts made by 3D printing must be _____ before they can be handled.
a) hardened b) infiltrated c) sintered d) tempered
57. The process used for producing moulds quickly using rapid prototyping
techniques is known as _____.

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a) Rapid Tooling b) Rapid Moulding c) Quick Tooling d) Quick Moulding

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58. _____ is a rapid manufacturing technique used for repair works.
a) Fused Deposition Modeling PA
b) 3D Printing
c) Direct Energy Deposition d) Stereolithography
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59. _____ process involves stacking layers of material and bonding them using
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heat and pressure.

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a) Fused Deposition Modeling b) Laminated Object Manufacturing

c) Direct Energy Deposition d) Binder Jetting
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60. _____ is a photopolymer jetting process used to create multi-color parts.

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a) PolyJet b) Digital Light Processing

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c) Selective Laser Sintering d) Binder Jetting

Question Papers  QP.8

 CON TIN UO US A S S E S S M EN T T ES T – 4
&
MO D E L E XA M IN A TI ON

Course : IV Semester Mechanical Engg. Time : 3 Hrs.

Subject : Advanced Manufacturing Technology Max. Marks : 100

[N.B: (1) Answer 10 questions by choosing 2 questions from each unit.

(2) All questions carry equal marks. (5 × 20 = 100)

1. a) Briefly explain the various types of plastics available.

b) Explain with a neat sketch the single screw extruder.

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c) Explain the reciprocating screw injection moulding with a neat sketch.

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d) With a neat sketch explain calendaring process.

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PA
2. a) What is hot machining. Explain its working principle. State its applications.
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b) Explain the shot peening process with a neat sketch.
TH

c) With a neat sketch, explain the PVD process. Give its applications.

d) Explain the working principle of electroplating? Give its applications and advantages.
PA
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3. a) Explain the principle of operation of electrical discharge machining with neat sketch.
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b) Explain with a sketch the operation of ultrasonic machining process. Give its
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applications and advantages.

c) Explain the working principle of laser beam machining process with neat sketch.

d) Explain the principle of working of plasma arc machining with neat sketch. List out
the advantages of PAM.

4. a) Explain the construction and working of CNC turning centre.

b) What is CMM? Explain the working of CMM with neat sketch.

c) Explain the work offset setting procedure in CNC milling machine.

d) Write a part program to produce a component in a CNC turning machine using linear
interpolation and circular interpolation with an example.

Question Papers  QP.9

5. a) Explain the stereolithography process with a line sketch. State its applications.

b) With a sketch, explain the working principle of Fused Deposition Modeling. List out
its applications and advantages.

c) What is 3D printing? Explain its working principle. State its advantages.

d) Briefly explain any three rapid manufacturing techniques.

ADVANCED MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT TEST – III

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ANSWERS FOR MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQ)

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1. b) 11. a) 21. b) 31. a) 41. b) 51. a)

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2. a) 12. b) 22. c) PA32. c) 42. c) 52. b)
3. c) 13. d) 23. d) 33. b) 43. a) 53. b)
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4. c) 14. b) 24. a) 34. b) 44. a) 54. b)

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5. b) 15. a) 25. c) 35. c) 45. c) 55. c)

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6. a) 16. b) 26. a) 36. d) 46. b) 56. b)

7. a) 17. b) 27. d) 37. c) 47. a) 57. a)
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8. b) 18. d) 28. b) 38. b) 48. d) 58. c)

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9. c) 19. a) 29. b) 39. c) 49. b) 59. b)

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10. d) 20. a) 30. c) 40. a) 50. a) 60. a)

Question Papers  QP.10