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BIO 107 Practical

Biology practical

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1K views10 pages

BIO 107 Practical

Biology practical

Uploaded by

ngozionyenali
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
‘N PRACTICAL MANUAL FOR BIOLOGY (aio toy ) CHAPTER TWO rcroscory Ml g50F THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE parts 4 : : ' cused in this manual is called Olympus binocular microscope CH. ‘This rhe OPE sgatons towards observing details of small and often tiny heey PD in sil ers of two conver lenses 0 produce a magnified image of ver; wey te SMOYS the nif gs sm: pound microscope are shown below he so as Bape are stated BETO iit all object. The and the functions of the fe important parts of the g_theLamp (1) This supplies ligt bigness is contol by an of ye the Bese oF stand (2) On which the microscope rests is sy con ie te alled the foot of the jo, The Voltage Contol (3): Never use maximum voltage or the lie ofthe hl a seting to third or three quarters of maximum should be adequate fer en constitutes field iris diaphragm which may be fitted close tothe lany gn eeeine cesta P to control the 11, The condenser contol (4: Focuses light rom the condenser lens stems onto 12, The condenser lens system (5): projects the specimen is image on the wae” objective itis ensuring optional resolution of correctly used, oe 13, The condenseriis diaphragm (6): eontols the amount of light entering end le condenser, its aperture canbe canbe adjused using the condenses diphraga 14. The condenser-iris diaphragm-lever (7): this is used to reduce slare an} eek contrast by cutting down the amount of stray light reaching the objective emg 15, The mechanical stage or slide holder (8): this is used to mount the specimen onthe si using a spring mechani side area of ing the m. It has two controls which(a) allows you to move the slide in y and y planes (b) the venire scales on the slide holder ean be used to return to the same pave on the slide. 16. The fine and coarse focus controls (9): adjusts the height of the stage rek systems. Take care when adju or slide, lative to the lens ing the focus control to avoid hitting the lenses with the sage 17. The objective lens (10): supplied the initial magnified image, it is the most important component of any microscope because its qualities determine resolution depth of the field and optical aberrations. The objective lenses are attached to a resolving nose piece 18. Revolving nosepiece (1): this is the point of attachment for the objective lenses: care shou be taken not jam the longer lenses on the stage or slides as you rotate the nosepieve. You should feel a distinct. Click-as each lens is moved into position. The magnification of each objectives is written on its side, a normal complement would be: x4, x10, x40, and x100(0 il immersion). re eyepiece lens (12): thi is used to further magnity the form and position suitable for viewi age from the objective and to put sees its magnification is writen on i Mecnonmaliy0)- By tvising the holier for one or both ofthe eyepiece lenses you san revating theirs height o ake acount of opis diferenes between your yes : so. ihe imerpupilary stance scale (13): with the help of the adjsinent hea compensation to be made for differences in the distance between user's pupil I b allow 2, the treet clamping (14: allows the eyepiece turret tobe rotated so a demonstrator can view men without exchanging position with you turret (15): this enables two pe your spe 22. The eyel ! ‘ons to view the specimen on slide without 1 position if loosened too much, the turret can come off, so care must be taken and exch always re-tighten afler use. a2 CARE OF THE MICROSCOPE she microscope isan expensive instrument and shold be handled cael, paying atetion othe following few tips (1) Always Keep the instrument in a box (around a cover) when not in use in order to maintain it in a dust fiee condition. ; Is move trom the Box using both hands and place ion the bench gently 0 avoid unnecessary falljarring- a (3 te lenses must be kept clean by wiping with a lens issue only {a) The mieroscope must always be focused upward never downwards, The slide may be damaged when (cing through the microscope while focusing downwards : e (5) Keep both eyes open and use each eye in turn {6) Do not try 10 unserved any knob nev 23. MAGNIFICATION the magnification of the object by microscope is the multiple of eye-pieee and objective lens snagnification. The final magnification therefore will be the mumber of be times the microscopes magnified image in enlarged or reduced. For instance, ifthe objective lens of x10 is used and an eye-picse of x10 is used to magnify an image, then the magnification is therefore 10x10=x100. if while Gene ig : image, your diagram is twice as large as that seen under the microscope, then the final ma ate become 100x2=200. ification 2.4 PRACTICAL EXERCISE You may be required to make a large labeled diagram of a compound microscope provided to you Make sure you follow the rules governing biological drawings. F1G:1:2 A COMPOUND MICROSCOPE veahtem: ‘ro tear the proper prob lear the proper use and care ofthe mic 1g various objects icroscope and some of itsCI Fes Compound microscope, gla of itsCharacteristies Ps nicroscope, glass slides, coverslips.| ties by [Link] microor, organisnsand pr repared slides. procedt Orientation the image and magnifi fication - Pri voter Make it as smal as it appears of this ae verysmall "e" on a pi Pepa place itn a drop at sige on glas lldetil tov ensmaller.1rimthe paper away f and Fenced [Link] the fete "s over thacovrsp coat mt he ison the stage so thatthe Teter "eis Sar caing gation Plas ewe sly _explained.N' is directly below the 10Xob-je ig position. Place thewet iy plain low draw it exactlyas it app ae jective and bring it into focus 0 as chigh- ver appears on low- ath a ‘as to bring thehigh-power dbjective into the ob fon [Link] tum the wy see through thisobjective. observing position Focus and draw 2 enh tld Pace a venall piece of paper towel on aslide and sma amount 0) ‘water. PI civer W asm ano ease the side on Ue BLO ni he ir focus anda dowed li ketch of whatyou see by using asolid fine Fo ae Sa Md Tine for those that are [Link] to focus up ae ee iin [Link] a ast two more sketches during yourfoeusins Sea ree ane is sin focus anddotted lines for those not infocus. ig, againusing solid lines for those in ition of living material ~ Make wet mount sfideusing mi mou fs previow posepieee § peactly whatyo faterial from aculture of micto- 1 you havemastered the art of s- anisms as they dart aroundthe slide unt [Link] some of these following these org ving the slide to Keep single organisp under constantobser nish. ah tations to be answered: 7 Wihat position does th J row much of the "e" cam Be S84 Fira AX objective forms an image tl 3. Tar magnifies this image tenn the imi jnalobject. WI raldyou hav’ "appear to be in {one time on low power How much on high power hat is fourtimes the size of the original object and the 10X ge you soewould be how many times tha Ih : Ig u iy times that of the hat magnification wot e with a 0Xobjectiveand a 15X ocular, a 43X “J a 10X ocular. ae is moving toward ths Jidein order to keep i field of vision, which way ove ina orig objectivean jira micro-organism™ ‘ould you move the s straightline) .e upperlefthand portion of de view. (assume that it will eontinge 10m Onion root cells ATION OF CELL STRUCTURE EXAMPH A EXAMIN: jnimum organization that aisplays the properties and the processes ‘We know fife ony inthe form oF lls = amit of life. This implies not only that ly organized units ms all living organist but also that we ‘thus. th tl thi (with the exeeption or viruses) are made UP OF These microscopic hie that all the processes related to Tile are methodology for leari se eientfie method deals with syst 10) ing about the world. It involves the application of knowledge ae 4 J. Itinvolves the appl F knowledge fematic investigation, reproducible results, the formation and cients, and ressoning, Reasoning can be Yroken down ino two ctor eetata is used 10 develop a generalized observation or. conclusion) and fic conclusion). Most reasoning in science is done resi jnduction (spec duction (genet uh induction. Science A. 5 J centfie. method is Trxnodology for learning mete to have an “imaginative pre al information leads to speci tas we now know it arose as a discipline in the 17th centu 10D not a. step by step, linear process. It is an inwitive process, a shout the world through the application of knowledge. Scientists must i of what the truth is, Seientists will often observe fen hypothesize the reason why a phenomenon ‘occurred. They use all of their knowledge an imagination, al nan attempt uncover something tha might be true. A typical atfic investigation might go like so ‘You observe that a room appears dark, and you ponder sient Mom i dark. In an attempt 10 find explanations 10 this euros, 9008 rind unravels wn O° tere Hypotheses. One hypothesis might sat that the Tights. are turned off. Another sec ee beta the om’ Hight as burt oat Worst se you ‘could be going blind. To un mi uth you experiment, You feel your way around the room and find shy sovitch det ron. No light. You repeat the experiment, Hicking the switeh back and forth, Still : the room is dark because the lights are off, has been yng, That means your initial hypothesis, ns You devise more experiments to test your hypotheses, wilizing a Mashlight to prove that ed Med not blind. In order to accept your last remaining hypothesis as the truth, you er that changing the light bulb wil fix the problem. If all your predictions succeed. typothesis is valid and is accepted, In some eases, however, your predictions will nt 1h you'll have to start over. Perhaps the power is off reject you a [ould pret ihe original pecur, in whiel L Opseryation 1 Hypothesis 1 - Hypothesis 2 ce nypatie Hypothesis 3 Hypothesis? t Hypothesis 4 Hypothesis 3 Be Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Experienced ed THeSy is Done gation Selene is Dome eta “strates oe raise a particular question. In o toes ake observations ber of possible explanations, or hypothe hey dee a Constructing plausible arguments for wh ; et © of more of the possible hyne mat of seienee, obse used to eliminate one of more ofthe possible hyn periments ate then deduction, scientists use in Principles of their hyp ghee romains, Using ded e thal their predictions 1 secure ness rien ee isinaie suet ace pred ore hypot an one byP et etions, 2 pre ake Pl m Tr confitmed. Afier many firmed, the csi all predictions have been confirmed, the hypothesis may al ity) an cpeatability Is (repes trials theory: become a quick observatio Inference low th first make Figure iagram Sejentists Spenomnc phienomen pductive Pal ind tlct to explain the observe This is the Ses until othesis 1g i ive ive measurements of the world, oa \d qualitative meas pcan - Quantitative and q n- Qua «knowledge based upon old knowledge 2 new per sugeested explanation. ed expla Blu li ne explanation that has been ruled 9 es Te ee At cpinaieni ean been ru ee nee reiaod suakes veritable predictions wer tation a ut through Xperimentation, led out through excessive are true experime that is used to rule out a hypothesis or validate something OAT eeeenent - A test iment - ae scientific investigation, wn. i rocess of si at Stiemtiie Maa ae cpled hypothesis that stends the test of Sel ‘A widely acee “pheory ~ ected, reall never rejecte us tin sed primarily on the tes ific method is based cientific met he se already ie. Often tested, and 8 Of hypotheses by ex ject that does not undergo the process in guar Ibject that does not un 1 (OS oa Te onstar cane very small number, single Seek to limit rocstiare ietalforar a hypothesis or prediction about variables. The ri everything you can to violate that, or falsify to see and then tive the Process serves to establish more firmly re eg pulaciplein Sciences a beatae absolute th fing pri es Yell as aaa isthe bagi or Carlier PS Well as for kely ar ivetteeiahay : mnie hess eee a aie s record like a scientist reflect lke a seiemiy ; Nate! think tke ascents» ecord Joel Fepealed atempls at fasfeaon. Common Theo ede aRneR rea selection and the idea that a onani ce of ies include evol i ch more evidence supports these two slo than theories 20 nity asserts that mul tific comm ‘The scien cts them. inte nrc or veePS INVOLVED INSCIEN TIFIC METHOD B. STEPS Petimentation, This A scientist wil aso ot minimum number of hat You believe or expeet the hypotheses. Although the What is and what isnot true ‘cepted explanation ig alsification. Atl Knowledge the most i ations & Inferences ee ee 7 NACI ten ly begins with observations, You Sees li ee setae using your 5 senses, These inci i un ie, toh nd nt : oe ae hat i )bservations. Let's y a Oe hat is made based on your o we ain nes i K. You observe that the moth hs ps Ay th, , resting on a tree trunk. iaeron aaa ' Sr aaa ake the moth look lke the Mee AR ae SERV the eye spots mi : Ste fo protets itself from predator ou ite er Aaa eye to protects itslt from p You infer that \ ne Asking a Question ror example, you might ask yourself why the moth his eye to questions. For © y sre be Tor this observation? ons often ead to gestions TOF CEN nat reason might there be for th oserations Coit tok Tike 88 OM san Sek iS caia Wihagn PeSking a esti WelPs Peetestpon observations. tha Xikins 24 ps roguestion vaten ote a mentation ight on plant growth? experiment eect of sito” Dl Forming a Hypothesis : sre nest step in a scientific investigation is forming a hypothesis. hypothesis isa possible answer to a. scientific question, but it isn't just any answer. A hypothesis must be beced oy Scientific knowledge, and it must be logical. A hypothesis: must be testable and bikifabie Fasfiable isthe abifity 1 cotlect data that does not support a hypothesis. Finally hypothee cs often stated as an “f..then” statement, because it shows case and effects A oeears tng will happen. Assume you know that some birds eat moths and that ows prey on other Rae From this knowledge, you make the hypothesis: I'a moth has eye spos oni wings tien tea will avoid eating it es note: predict a solution to the problem based on your researeh, () cx. if sunlight has au effect on plant growth, it is needed for photosynthesis. i ~-then...beeause...” then plants will grow larger in the sun because 4. Testing the Hypothesis - Conducting a Controlled Experiment Next, you must gather evidence to test your prediction, Evidence is any type of dat that may cither agree or disagree with a prediction, So it may either support or disprove a hypothesis, The most ideal way to gather data is to conduct a controlled experiment. All good contolled experiments include the following elements: independent variables, dependent. arable constants, control group, and experimental groups. These terms will be discussed later in the section. However, a controlled experiment cannot be used in every situation; sometimes nly rely on a large number of consistent obsery scientists ste you gather evidence by making more absery example, svPhions under many types of conditions. It you con many ane the moths, then your data (observations) suy do avon’ ihe hypothesis with a step by step procedure, mote car and detailed sO another scientist can rep it is clear ations 10 draw conch ations of moths with sistently observe that 1PPOF your prediction, lusions. For Ye spots -. birds realty ate your experiment, ; list an anaterials 2types of Va Independent Variable (IV) ‘What the investigator (YOU) changes Known as the OF LIGHT is changed for each plant, Perimental Group” Ex. AMOUiy Dependent Variable (DY) + Changes due othe IV GW you mesure bs. PLANT GROWTH (cm) NOs measure Ex. measure the control group & constants control group : the group or sample that is used as a stand the dark is eompared to the experimental group (ight) constants: the factors in the experiment that group and the control. ex. amount of sol, nutvier collect data information and observations collected during the ‘ experiment, qualitative :-ideseriptions of observations “what it looks like” ex plant ¢ has dried up and lost all of its leaves lard for comparison. ex. the plant in need to stay the same between the experimental nfs, water, ete. is constant forall plants quantitative: Cnumerical measurements (“numbers with units” es. 15 em Analyze results (Display data using a graph to show pattems Fx. Line chart, ete, ph, bar graph, pie Precision How close the measurements are to each other. cement is to the actual rem tual (true) v itiple trials (repeated tests) Ta pate: | Measure increase accuracy ttt curacy NY (Precise ly) in mul prawing Conclusions nigrees with your predict aerate on suppo i cee nt meh ghtly cc en othesis ca ‘S18. Dog tee pease Sele outnen This Wen prov Nonethel , and someday eviderae ne? Poss or less, th oday evidence my rssible bec or dy the hypotests is 0 be true. he more evidence that suymene ecause you ca na Th r al SUPPOMS a hymen me ¢ solution to the problem. POM a hypothesis ees . State wh he more \ 5. zvidence that Wyo" there i Such evidence en conclusively wo he examine al note? Conelot orks pecepted OF rejected. OSummarize and ee drror, etc xplain the significance arene sou 2 ‘Communicating Results ce of your results, Nemes fast step in a scientific inves S ey rhs ina scientilic investigation is communicating wh : ¢ it allo nunicating what you ws others t0 verify your m ae learned with oth our methods and a results. I ot other 1 very impo 1 the same results yours, the hy the hypothesis becomes st es stronger. Il get. However, if th they get ‘iter they may not support — the git deseribe their methods and point bypothesis. When scientists sh Finally, communicating secails cant betlane iaike Table polled wih ene "; articles, conferences, ete. a variety of ways incl ie the investigation, while z ee fo, while you were observing moths oe ‘error into your investigation Nott Sont presence ce PS Svnile you were observing the af Gat ns Fb jo eine (he roe 'g might be able to think of th), but not fr he son yo ype. Os t findings Cipresent eage avid Wis Ge in he Sa ee 1 your information ee enn to o « by other scientists verifies your ee ge researchers 2 cont results, logs. new For exampl introduces @! the moll researcher: report (retestiny note: findings.

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