BASICS OF CIVIL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING NOTES

Note: Numerical problems will be discussed in the class room

MODULE 1

Stress is defined as the force per unit area that is observed by a material
when an external force is applied. These external forces are generally
uneven heating, permanent deformation, etc.

Mathematically, stress is given by,

σ=F/A
Where, σ = Applied Stress
F = Force Applied
A = Area of Force
Types of Stress

The two main types of stress are normal stress and shearing or tangential
stress. These are further divided into other types.

[Link] Stress

Stress is called normal when the external force acts in normal

(perpendicular) to the body’s cross-sectional area. This stress can be
further divided into two types:

 Longitudinal stress
 Volumetric or bulk stress
 Longitudinal stress – In longitudinal stress, the external force acts along
the length of the body. Hence, the main change occurs in the length of the
body and there is only a slight change in the diameter of the material. It can
be further divided into two types:

Tensile stress – It results in the increase of the body’s length.

Compressive stress – It is due to the decrease in the length of the body.

 Volumetric or bulk stress – When the deforming force acting on a body
causes a change in its volume, it is called volume or bulk stress.

 2. Tangential or Shearing Stress

When the external force acts on the body in parallel to the cross-sectional
area, then the stress is said to be tangential or shearing stress.

Strain is the measure of deformation caused to a body due to stress. We

can also say that it is a measure of the physical change that occurs in a
body due to the application of stress.

Strain is a unitless quantity as it is a ratio and the numerator and

denominator in the fraction have the same units. Hence, the units get
cancelled. There are the following three types of strain:

Normal Strain

Normal strain is also called longitudinal strain. It is the change in length of

the body to the original length. Normal strain can be calculated by finding
the ratio of change in length and the original length of the body.

Shearing Strain

Shearing strain is the angular deformation generated in a body. It is the

ratio of the displacement of the body’s surface to the height of the body.

Bulk strain or volumetric strain

It is the ratio of the change in volume of the body and the original volume of
the body.

Formula of Strain

Strain (ε)= Δx/X

where, ε is strain Δx is a change in the dimensions X is the original
dimension

What is Hooke’s Law?

Stress and strain take different forms in different situations. Generally, for
small deformations, the stress and strain are proportional to each other,
and this is known as Hooke’s Law.
Hooke’s law states that the strain of the material is proportional to the
applied stress within the elastic limit of that material.
When the elastic materials are stretched, the atoms and molecules deform
until stress is applied, and when the stress is removed, they return to their
initial state.
Mathematically, Hooke’s law is expressed as:
F = –kx
In the equation, F is the force, x is the extension in length, k is the constant
of proportionality known as the spring constant in N/m.

What are Elastic Constants?

Elastic constants are the constants which describe the mechanical

response of an elastic material when it is subjected to different kinds of
loads. Based on the type of stress and strain, Elastic constants can be
classified into 4 types. These Elastic constants are mentioned below.

1. Young’s Modulus of elasticity (E)

2. Bulk Modulus (K)
3. Modulus of rigidity (G)
4. Poisson’s ratio (μ)

Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (E)

Young’s modulus of elasticity is an elastic constant that is defined as the

ratio of Longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain. When an axial load P is
applied along the bar’s longitudinal axis, the bar’s length will be increased
in the direction of the applied load, and stress (σ) is induced in the bar.
σ= P/A

According to Hooke’s law, longitudinal stress is directly proportional to

longitudinal strain.

Hence, σ∝ε

So, σ=Eε , E= σ/ε

Bulk Modulus (K)

The bulk modulus of elasticity is an elastic constant showing a material’s

incompressibility. When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular
stresses of equal intensity (σ). Then the ratio of direct stress (σ) to the
corresponding volumetric strain (ϵv) is defined as the bulk modulus (K) for
the material of the body.

Which is generally denoted as ‘K’. Thus,

K = Direct Stress/Volumetric Strain= σ/εv

Volumetric strain: Volumetric strain is defined as the ratio of change in

volume of an elastic body to its initial volume. For an equally stressed body
in all three mutually perpendicular directions,

Volumetric strain = εv=ΔV/V=εx+εy+εz

Modulus of Rigidity (G)

Modulus of Rigidity is an elastic constant that measures a deformable

body’s rigidity.

The shear modulus or modulus of rigidity expresses the relation between

shear stress and shear strain. Modulus of rigidity can be defined as the
ratio of shear stress to shear strain.

G=Τ/φ

Shear strain (φ): Shear strain is defined as the angular deformation of the
body when it is subjected to shear stress.
Poisson’s ratio (μ)

Poisson’s ratio is an elastic constant which is defined as the ratio of lateral

strain to longitudinal strain. Poisson’s ratio is a unitless quantity, and it is
generally denoted as μ or 1/m.

Poisson’s ratio = -Lateral Strain/Longitudinal Strain

Poisson’s Ratio values for different materials:

Material Poisson’s ratio (μ)

Cork 0

Concrete 0.1 – 0.2

Metals 1/4 to 1/3

Rubber, Clay, Paraffin 0.5→ Behaves like a perfectly elastic material

Relation Between Different Elastic Constants

Among these four Elastic constants, three elastic constants can be related
to each other.

These relations can be expressed below.

 E=2G(1+μ)
 E=3K(1-2μ)
 E=9KG/(3K+G)

Some Important Facts about Elastic Constants

The value of any Elastic constants should be ≥ 0.

E, K, G > 0

µ ≥ 0 [because, µcork = 0]
So, for K to be positive, 1 – 2µ ≥ 0 ⇒µ ≤ 1/2

Hence for any engineered material, 0 ≤ µ ≤1/2

µ G K

Minimum Limit 0 E/2 E/3

Maximum Limit 1/2 E/3 ∞

Hence, we can say that

 E/2≤G≤E/3 and E/3≤K≤∞

 Asµ↓⇒G↓and K↑
 G≤E

What are Ductile Materials?

Ductile materials are a class of materials characterised by their ability to

undergo significant plastic deformation without fracturing. When subjected
to external forces or loads, ductile materials exhibit a noticeable elongation
or deformation before reaching the point of failure. This plastic
deformation is usually accompanied by a gradual reduction in cross-
sectional area, a phenomenon known as necking.


Stress-Strain Curve for Ductile Materials

Fig 1: Stress Strain Curve for Ductile

Proportional Limit: Indicated by point A on the graph, stress and strain
remain directly proportional up to this limit, adhering to Hooke's law.
Beyond this, stress no longer maintains a linear relationship with strain.

Elastic Limit: Point B signifies the elastic limit, where the material
demonstrates elasticity. The specimen fully regains its original form upon
removing the external load without any residual deformations. Beyond this
juncture, plastic behaviour emerges.

Yield Point: The yield point is a region delimited by the upper yield point 'C'
and the lower yield point 'D'. The stress-strain curve here is nearly
horizontal, signifying a significant strain increase for a minor stress rise.
Yielding transpires from 'C' to 'D'. Subsequent to 'D', due to strain hardening,
the curve ascends as the material carries the load, marking the transition to
plastic deformation of a nearly permanent nature.

Ultimate Tensile Stress: Represented by point 'E', this is the peak stress a
material withstands prior to failure. Notably, the specimen doesn't fail at
this juncture, and the curve commences descending thereafter.

Breaking Point: The point of specimen failure, post the ultimate stress, is
the breaking point. After the ultimate tensile stress, necking occurs,
reducing the load-bearing capacity and eventually causing failure. This
critical point is denoted on the curve by point 'F'.

What is Brittle Material?

When under stress, brittle material cracks while absorbing little to no

energy. No plastic distortion causes the material to fracture. Usually, when
brittle material breaks, there is a loud audible snap sound. A substance
with limited ductility is also referred to as being brittle.

Stress Strain Curve for Brittle Material

The stress-Strain curve is the curve that shows the variation of stress
induced in a material with the strain applied over it. Below the curve is the
stress-strain curve for brittle material, which shows the variation of stress
to strain.
The factor of safety increases safety and reduces the risk of failure of a
structure. The safety factor is most important regarding safety equipment
and fall protection. If a structure fails, there is a risk of injury and death and
a company’s financial loss.

The factor of safety is used by engineers while designing a structure.

Practically there is some uncertainty in applied forces, material properties,
and model assumptions. It is provided a design margin over a theoretical
design capacity to overcome uncertainty parameters (like a manufacturing
process and material strength). Let us discuss in detail factor of safety.

What is a Factor of Safety?

The factor of safety definition is considered by the following parameters:

 The factor of safety is a structure’s absolute strength (structural

capability) ratio to the actual applied load. FoS measures the
reliability of a particular design.
 A constant required value is imposed by standard specification to
which a structure must exceed. This can be referred to as a design
factor, design factor of safety, or required factor of safety.
 When the factor of safety is equal to one, it means that the ultimate
stress is equal to the working stress; therefore, the body can only
support load up to the actual load and no more before failing.
Importance of Factor of Safety

Importance of Factor of Safety to assure the structural designing does not

occur any unexpected failure or presence of deformation or defect. The
smaller the Factor of Safety, the higher chances there were for the design
to be a failure. Resulting in an uneconomical and nonfunctional design.

Formula For Factor of Safety

The factor of safety is defined as the ratio of ultimate stress of the

component material to the working stress. Mathematically, the Factor of
safety is the ratio of material strength to allowable stress. The factor of the
safety equation depends on the type of material:

Factor of safety = Ultimate strength/Working stress -for brittle material

(concrete)

Factor of safety = Yield strength/Working stress -for ductile material (steel)

Example:

FoS for steel = Yield strength (fy)/Working stress (0.87 fy)= 1.15
(approximately)

FoS for concrete = Yield strength (fck)/Working stress (0.67 fck / 1.5)= 3
(approximately)

(∵ 2 times factor of safety is taken for concrete as it has least quality

control while preparing the concrete)

Classification of System of Forces

The positioning of forces on a body is highly significant. Even with the

same set of forces acting on a body, the resulting system of forces can
vary, leading to different behaviors exhibited by the body. The system of
forces can be categorized into two main types: Coplanar force system and
Non-coplanar force system.
Coplanar System of Forces

When we use the term “coplanar,” it means that the quantities involved
should be within the same plane. A system of forces is called a coplanar
system of forces if the line of action of all the forces acting on the body is
in the same plane. To further illustrate these concepts, let’s examine some
practical examples.

Example:

 Forces acting on a beam: When a beam is subjected to loads such as

point loads or distributed loads, the forces acting on the beam form a
coplanar force system.
 Tension forces in a cable system: In a suspension bridge or a cable-
stayed structure, the tension forces in the cables create a coplanar
force system.
 Forces acting on a pulley: The tension forces in the ropes or cables of
a pulley system form a coplanar force system.
 Forces in a truss structure: In a truss bridge or roof structure, the
forces acting on the individual members of the truss form a coplanar
force system.
A coplanar system of forces can be further classified into the following
types :

 Collinear Coplanar System of Forces: – All the forces of this force

system are coplanar and the line of action of all the forces are same.
Example: Force system on the rope in a game of tug of war, Force
 system in the member of a truss, etc.

 Concurrent Coplanar System of Forces: – All the forces of this force

system are coplanar and the line of action of all the forces intersect
at a point. Example: Forces system at the joint of the truss, Force
system on hanging picture on a wall, etc.

 Parallel Coplanar System of Forces: – All the forces of this force

system are coplanar and the line of action of all the forces are
parallel to each other. Example: Forces system on lifting a weight
with a pulley system, system on a balance

d plank at a pivot, etc. Parallel

 systems of force may be further classified into two types: “Like
parallel force system” and “Unlike parallel force system”. In a parallel
force system, when all forces have the same direction, it is referred to
as a like parallel force system. On the other hand, if the forces have
different directions, it is termed as an unlike parallel force system.
 Non-Parallel Non-Concurrent Coplanar System of Forces: – All the
forces of this force system are coplanar and the line of action of all
the forces are neither parallel nor concurrent. Example: Forces
system on a truss structure, Force system on a balanced box on an
inclined plane, Force system Leaning ladder against a wall etc.

Non-Coplanar System of Forces

When we use the term “non-coplanar,” it means that the quantities involved
should not be in the same plane. A system of forces is called a non-
coplanar system of forces if the line of action of all the forces acting on the
body does not lie in the same plane. Non-coplanar systems of forces are
not typically included in the syllabus of competitive exams. Therefore, we
won’t be covering the analysis of non-coplanar force systems in detail.
Let’s examine some practical examples.

Example: Forces in the members of transmission tower, Forces in the

crane lifting a load using multiple cables, etc.

 Concurrent Non- Coplanar System of Forces: – Concurrent non-

coplanar forces have lines of action intersecting at a single point but
lie in different planes. The resultant force can be found by adding the
forces using vector addition. Examples include forces acting on a
three-dimensional structure or a hanging chain.
  Parallel Non- Coplanar System of Forces: – A parallel non-coplanar
system of forces refers to a situation where multiple forces are
parallel to each other but lie in different planes.

 Non-Parallel Non-Concurrent Non-Coplanar System of Forces: Non-

concurrent non-parallel non-coplanar forces have lines of action that
neither lie in the same plane nor intersect at a single point. The
resultant force is determined using vector addition. Examples include
forces acting on a three-dimensional truss or a suspended bridge.

Different Types of Beams

A beam is a horizontal structural member that runs horizontally to support
vertical loads emanating from the building frame. The load is distributed to
the beam’s ends and transferred to columns, walls, and posts on both
sides of the beam. It can only bear lateral loads on the beam’s axis. The
following are the types of beams:

1. Cantilever beam
2. Simply Supported beam
3. Overhanging beam
4. Fixed beams
5. Continuous beam

Cantilever Beam

A cantilever beam is a member with one end protruding beyond the point of
support, allowing it to move vertically under the impact of vertical loads
placed between the free end and the support.

Simply Supported Beam

A simply supported beam is one that is supported by two points and can
travel horizontally. Bridges, beams in structures, and machine tool beds are
examples of typical practical applications of simply supported beams with
point loadings. SSS, or simply supported beam, important for the GATE
exam, is shown below
Overhanging Beam

When the end of a beam extends beyond the support, it is referred to as an

overhanging beam. Overhanging can occur on one or both sides of the
supports.

Fixed Beam

Two fixed ends hold up a fixed beam. It’s also known as a fixed-end beam,
built-in beam, or constrained beam. It is classed as a statically
indeterminate beam since there are more than three unknowns and the
static equilibrium equations alone are insufficient to identify the support
reactions. The Fixed beam is shown below:
Continuous Beam

Continuous steel beams are made up of two or more beams that are
welded together and reinforced by additional beams to form a strong but
flexible component for large-scale structures. Continuous beams, for
example, are utilized in bridges, multi-story buildings, complex roof
structures, and other construction projects.

Types of Beam Support

For stability, a structure relies less on the weight and stiffness of a material
and more on its shape. Whatever the condition, a certain degree of
stiffness is required for connection designs. The form of support
connection influences the load-bearing capability of each member that
makes up a structural system. Each support condition has an effect on the
behaviour of the elements and, thus, the system. Horizontal-span support
systems and vertical building structure systems are two types of structures.