16.

CHAPTER 16
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

CONTENTS

13 Excretion in humans
13.1 Excretion in humans

14 Coordination and response

14.1 Coordination and response
14.2 Sense organs
14.3 Hormones
14.4 Homeostasis
14.5 Tropic responses

15 Drugs
15.1 Drugs

16 Reproduction
16.1 Asexual reproduction
16.2 Sexual reproduction
16.3 Sexual reproduction in plants
16.4 Sexual reproduction in humans
16.5 Sexual hormones in humans
16.6 Sexually transmitted diseases

17 Inheritance
17.1 Chromosomes, genes and proteins
17.2 Mitosis
17.3 Meiosis
17.4 Monohybrid inheritance
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

Reproduction
Reproduction is the process of making more of the same kind of organism
Some organisms reproduce sexually, others reproduce asexually

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1 parent offspring 2 parents offspring

Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction
a process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from one
parent
No gametes (sex cells) are produced
No mixing of genetic information
Offspring are genetic clones of the parent

genetically
identical

1 parent offspring
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

Examples of asexual reproduction

Bacteria
reproduce by cell division (binary fission)
bacterium divides producing two exact genetic copies
Fungi
release spores
spores develop hyphae when they land on a suitable substrate

bacterial cells divide by binary fission, producing fungal spores are dispersed by the wind
two exact genetic copies
Bacteria reproduce asexually by binary fission
 Hypha (pl. hyphae)

Hyphae are the branching filaments that make up the mycelium (structural tissue) of a fungus
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

Examples of asexual reproduction

Vegetative propogation
the formation and growth of a new plant from a fragment of another
Stolons
horizontal stems that remain above ground
offspring grow from buds on the stolons
the stolon dies leaving an independent plant

Parent plant

STOLON Daughter plant

New stolon
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

Examples of asexual reproduction

Vegetative propogation
the formation and growth of a new plant from a fragment of another
Rhizomes
horizontal stems that grow below the ground
offspring grow from buds on the rhizomes
the rhizome dies leaving an independent plant

Parent plant

Daughter plant

RHIZOME
Rhizomes enable
TEXT plants like grasses and ferns to reproduce asexually
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

Examples of asexual reproduction

Vegetative propogation
the formation and growth of a new plant from a fragment of another
Tubers
rhizomes swell up forming tubers
new shoots and roots grow from the tubers

If a tuber is left in the ground, new shoots and roots grow from its buds using food stored inside the
tuber.
 rhizome

tuber (containing
stored starch)
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

Examples of asexual reproduction

Vegetative propogation
the formation and growth of a new plant from a fragment of another
Bulbs
a lateral bud develops alongside the parent bulb
grows into an independent plant during the next growing season

Garlic, onions, daffodils and tulips all reproduce When the time is right, new plants grow quickly
asexually using bulbs using food stored inside the bulb
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

Examples of asexual reproduction

Hydra
tentacles grow outwards from the central stem and develop into new hydra
offspring detach from the central stem

Parent

Daughter separates
from parent

Daughter hydra are genetic clones of the parent

The pond-dwelling hydra is an example of an animal that reproduces asexually

You need to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction
Advantages
no mate or gametes needed (quicker, more energy efficient)
all desirable characteristics are passed on (e.g. disease resistance)
uniform crop production
offspring grow in the same favourable environment as the parent (if no dispersal)
rapid growth (due to availability of stored food)

Speed and energy efficiency results in bigger Species can quickly establish large populations in
yields of crop plants and profits for farmers the wild, dominating resources
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction
Advantages
no mate or gametes needed (quicker, more energy efficient)
all desirable characteristics are passed on (e.g. disease resistance)
uniform crop production
offspring grow in the same favourable environment as the parent (if no dispersal)
rapid growth (due to availability of stored food)

Organisms can reproduce when mates or Genetically identical crops with the same
pollinators are scarce desirable features
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction
Advantages
no mate or gametes needed (quicker, more energy efficient)
all desirable characteristics are passed on (e.g. disease resistance)
uniform crop production
offspring grow in the same favourable environment as the parent (if no dispersal)
rapid growth (due to availability of stored food)

If the parent is well adapted to their Food stored in tubers and bulbs allows plants to
environment, the offspring will be too grow rapidly before it needs to compete with
other plants for resources
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction
Disadvantages
little variation (adaptation to a changing environment is unlikely)
offspring inherit unfavourable characteristics (e.g. disease susceptibility)
excessive competition for resources (due to lack of dispersal)

If conditions change, a genetically identical A disease or parasite that affects one individual is
population may be unable to adapt likely to spread throughout the entire population
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction
Disadvantages
little variation (adaptation to a changing environment is unlikely)
offspring inherit unfavourable characteristics (e.g. disease susceptibility)
excessive competition for resources (due to lack of dispersal)

plants that reproduce asexually often compete as the population grows, demand for resources
with one another for water, light and nutrients may exceed supply
16.2

CHAPTER 16
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.2 - Sexual reproduction

CONTENTS

13 Excretion in humans
13.1 Excretion in humans

14 Coordination and response

14.1 Coordination and response
14.2 Sense organs
14.3 Hormones
14.4 Homeostasis
14.5 Tropic responses

15 Drugs
15.1 Drugs

16 Reproduction
16.1 Asexual reproduction
16.2 Sexual reproduction
16.3 Sexual reproduction in plants
16.4 Sexual reproduction in humans
16.5 Sexual hormones in humans
16.6 Sexually transmitted diseases

17 Inheritance
17.1 Chromosomes, genes and proteins
17.2 Mitosis
17.3 Meiosis
17.4 Monohybrid inheritance
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.2 - Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction
a process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes to form a zygote and the
production of offspring that are genetically different from each other

Fertilisation
the fusion of the nuclei of gametes

GAMETE GAMETE ZYGOTE

fertilisation

gametes are sex cells

 The gametes are sperm and eggs (ova) in humans and
pollen grains and ovules in flowering plants (see 16.3-16.4)
 The gametes are sperm and eggs (ova) in humans and
pollen grains and ovules in flowering plants (see 16.3-16.4)
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.2 - Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction
Haploid
a haploid nucleus is one that contains a single set of chromosomes
the nuclei of gametes are haploid

Diploid
a diploid nucleus is one that contains two sets of chromosomes
the nucleus of a zygote is diploid

HAPLOI D HAPLOI D DI PLOI D

GAMETE GAMETE ZYGOTE

fertilisation

23 chromosomes 23 chromosomes 46 chromosomes

 Chromosomes are the structures within the nuclei of cells
that contain the organism’s genetic information (see ch 17)
Normal human cells have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
Some organisms have more and others have less.
When gametes are produced (see meiosis, ch 17), the number of chromosomes
in the nucleus of each sex cell is halved. These cells are known as haploid cells.
During fertilisation, two haploid gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote
The zygote contains two complete sets of chromosomes (one from the mother and one from the father)
You need to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.2 - Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction
Advantages
higher genetic variability
better adaptation to a changing or fluctuating environment
dispersal of seeds in plants reduces competition and allows plants to colonise new
areas
new crop varieties are produced by selective breeding

Genetic variability increases the likelihood that a population of a species will adapt and survive in a
new or changing environment (e.g. drought, flooding, new disease, new predator)
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.2 - Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction
Advantages
higher genetic variability
better adaptation to a changing or fluctuating environment
dispersal of seeds in plants reduces competition and allows plants to colonise new
areas
new crop varieties are produced by selective breeding

A new disease is less likely to infect an entire population (due to variation)

Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.2 - Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction
Advantages
higher genetic variability
better adaptation to a changing or fluctuating environment
dispersal of seeds in plants reduces competition and allows plants to colonise new
areas
new crop varieties are produced by selective breeding

The seeds produced by sexual reproduction are This allows plants to colonise new habitats and
often dispersed over a wide area reduces competition for resources
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.2 - Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction
Advantages
higher genetic variability
better adaptation to a changing or fluctuating environment
dispersal of seeds in plants reduces competition and allows plants to colonise new
areas
new crop varieties are produced by selective breeding

Sexual reproduction enables a practice called Two organisms with different characteristics are
selective breeding (see 18.3) cross-bred to produce offspring with a new and
desirable combination of traits
Selective breeding is used to produce crop plants with desirable
characteristics (e.g. yield, flavour, appearance, disease-resistance)
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.2 - Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction
Disadvantages
energetically costly
time to locate mating partner
there may be no available mates or pollinators nearby
growth of plants from a seed to maturity is slow

The production of gametes is both energetically Pollination of flowing plants and mating by
costly and time consuming animals takes time
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.2 - Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction
Disadvantages
energetically costly
time to locate mating partner
there may be no available mates or pollinators nearby
growth of plants from a seed to maturity is slow

Mating options may be limited, restricting Many flowering plants rely on pollinators to
population growth reproduce sexually
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.2 - Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction
Disadvantages
energetically costly
time to locate mating partner
there may be no available mates or pollinators nearby
growth of plants from a seed to maturity is slow

Vegetative propagation (asexual reproduction) Seeds contain only a small amount of stored
is a quicker, more energy efficient way of food, reducing chances of survival in the wild
producing crop plants
16.3

CHAPTER 16
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CONTENTS

13 Excretion in humans
13.1 Excretion in humans

14 Coordination and response

14.1 Coordination and response
14.2 Sense organs
14.3 Hormones
14.4 Homeostasis
14.5 Tropic responses

15 Drugs
15.1 Drugs

16 Reproduction
16.1 Asexual reproduction
16.2 Sexual reproduction
16.3 Sexual reproduction in plants
16.4 Sexual reproduction in humans
16.5 Sexual hormones in humans
16.6 Sexually transmitted diseases

17 Inheritance
17.1 Chromosomes, genes and proteins
17.2 Mitosis
17.3 Meiosis
17.4 Monohybrid inheritance
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

Male gametes are present in pollen grains and female gametes in ovules

POLLINATION
pollen is transferred from the male parts of a
flower to the female reproductive organs

POLLEN

OVULE

ovul e zygote
FERTILISATION pol l en
the nuclei of the male and female
sex cells fuse to form a zygote
(which develops into a seed)
You need to identify in diagrams and images and
draw the parts of an insect-pollinated flower
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Parts of an insect-pollinated flower

Petals
attract insects for pollination
Sepals
enclose and protect the developing flower
Stamens
male reproductive organs
each stamen consists of an anther and filament
Anthers
produce pollen grains (male gametes)
Filaments
support anthers
Carpels
female reproductive organs
each carpel consists of a stigma, style and ovary
Stigma
catches pollen during pollination
Style
connects stigma to ovary
Ovary
contains one or more ovules
Ovules
contain female gametes
develop into seeds when fertilised
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Parts of an insect-pollinated flower

PETALS
Attract insects
for pollination

SEPALS
Protect unopened
flower bud
Sepals protect the developing bud
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Parts of an insect-pollinated flower

ANTHER
Produces pollen
STAMEN
FILAMENT
Supports anther

STAMENS

The stamens are the male reproductive organs of a flower

Each stamen consists of a long, slender stalk called a filament with an anther at the tip
Each anther is made of four sac-like structures in which pollen grains are
produced. When the anther is ripe, the sacs split open exposing the grains
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Parts of an insect-pollinated flower

STIGMA
Catches pollen

CARPEL
STYLE
Connects
stigma to ovary

OVARY OVULE
Contains ovules Contains female
gametes

Carpels are the female reproductive organs of a flower

The stigma is a sticky surface that catches pollen from passing insects
Ovules develop into seeds when fertilised and the ovary that surrounds them becomes a fruit
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Parts of a wind-pollinated flower

Stamens
long filaments with anthers that hang loosely outside the flowers
exposed anthers swing freely in the wind, releasing large quantities of pollen
Stigmas
hang outside the flower
feathery, with a large surface area to catch pollen grains carried by the wind
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Pollination and fertilisation

Pollination
the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to a stigma

WIND POLLINATED INSECT POLLINATED

Some flowers rely on insects to transfer their pollen, while others use the wind
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Pollination and fertilisation

Fertilisation
occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a nucleus in an ovule

ovul e zygote
POLLEN pol l en

Cell divides forming

an embryo (seed)

OVULE

Pollen travels down the style to the ovary where it fertilises an ovule
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Pollen grains
Insect-pollinated flowers
produce relatively small quantities
grains are large
grains are sticky or spiky to adhere to the bodies of insects

Anthers of insect-pollinated flowers produce Sticky or spiky grains stick to the bodies of
smaller quantities of larger pollen grains. passing insects.
Fewer grains are produced due to the relative efficiency of insect pollination
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Pollen grains
Wind-pollinated flowers
produce large quantities
grains are small, light and smooth
grains are easily carried by the wind

Large quantities of grains are produced due to Small, light grains stay suspended in the air.
the inefficiency of wind-pollination.
The feathery stigmas of other flowers catch pollen grains suspended in the air
You need to describe the structural adaptations of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Structural adaptations
Insect-pollinated flowers
Petals
large, coloured and scented to attract insects
guidelines to guide insects towards nectar source
Nectar
attracts insects into flower (bringing them into contact with stamens and stigma)
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Structural adaptations
Insect-pollinated flowers
Stamens
inside flower
Stigma
inside flower
sticky surface catches pollen from passing insects
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Structural adaptations
Wind-pollinated flowers
Petals
absent, or small and green
Nectar
absent

Wind-pollinated flowers do not produce nectar For the same reason, petals are either absent or
as they have no need to attract insects. small and inconspicuous.
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Structural adaptations
Wind-pollinated flowers
Stamens
long, flexible filaments
anthers hang outside the flower (pollen exposed to wind)
Stigma
hang outside the flower
feathery, with a large surface area to catch pollen grains
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Germination
Germination is the process of development of a plant from a seed
Environmental conditions that affect germination of seeds include temperature,
water and oxygen
Temperature
affects enzyme activity
Water
triggers seed expansion
activates enzymes
Oxygen
needed for respiration
You need to investigate the environmental conditions that affect germination of seeds
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Environmental conditions that affect germination

Temperature
Method
Add moist cotton wool to three containers
Place an equal number of soaked seeds in each container
Place container A in a refrigerator (~4°C)
Keep container B at room temperature (~20°C)
Place container C in an incubator (~30-35°C)
Close containers and leave for several days
Measure the length of the roots and shoots

Refrigerator Room temp. Incubator

A B C
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Environmental conditions that affect germination

Temperature
Results
Seedlings in container C are more developed than seedlings in container B
Seeds in container A do not germinate
Interpretation
Seeds do not germinate below certain temperatures
Rate of germination increases as temperature increases (up to ~35°C)

A B C

Appropriate temperature conditions enable enzymes to function optimally

Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Environmental conditions that affect germination

Water
Method
Add cotton wool to three containers
Place an equal number of soaked seeds in each container
Keep the cotton wool in container A dry
Dampen cotton wool in container B
Submerge seeds in container C
Close containers and leave at room temperature for several days
Measure the length of the roots and shoots

Dry Damp Submerged

A B C
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Environmental conditions that affect germination

Water
Results
Seeds in container A do not germinate
Seeds in container B germinate normally
Limited germination of seeds in container C
Interpretation
Water is needed for germination
Too much water cuts oxygen supply to seed

A B C
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Environmental conditions that affect germination

Oxygen
Method
Add moist cotton wool to two containers
Place an equal number of soaked seeds in each container
Place a test tube containing water in container A
Place a test tube containing alkaline pyrogallol solution in container B
Close containers and leave at room temperature for several days
Measure the length of the roots and shoots

alkaline pyrogallol
solution (removes
water (control) oxygen)

A B

Alkaline pyrogallol solution absorbs oxygen, creating a low-oxygen environment

Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Environmental conditions that affect germination

Oxygen
Results
Seeds in container A germinate normally
Seeds in container B do not germinate
Interpretation
Oxygen is needed for germination

A B

Germinating seeds require oxygen to produce energy via respiration

Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Self and cross pollination

Self pollination
the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same
flower or a different flower on the same plant

Cross pollination
the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on
a different plant of the same species

CROSS-POLLINATION SELF-POLLINATION
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Self and cross pollination

The potential effects of self -pollination and cross-pollination on a population
Self pollination
less genetic variation
less likely to adapt to changing environmental conditions
not reliant on pollinators

Lack of variation reduces a population’s capacity Self-pollination allows populations to survive in

to respond to changes in the environment. the absence of pollinators.
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Self and cross pollination

The potential effects of self -pollination and cross-pollination on a population
Cross pollination
more genetic variation
more likely to adapt to changing environmental conditions
reliant on pollinators

More variation increases a population’s capacity If pollinator numbers decrease, rate of

to respond to changes in the environment. reproduction decreases.
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Fertilisation
Describe the growth of the pollen tube and its entry into the ovule followed by
fertilisation
1) pollen grain lands on stigma
2) pollen tube grows from grain to ovary
3) pollen tube enters ovule through micropyle
4) pollen nucleus moves through pollen tube
5) pollen nucleus fertilises female nucleus

Stigma
Nucl eus enters ovul e
Pollen tube grows
through a ti ny hol e
from pollen grain
Style cal l ed a mi cropyl e

Pollen tube Pollen nucleus

moves down the
pollen tube

Ovary Ovule

Mal e and femal e nucl ei

fuse to form a zygote
16.4

CHAPTER 16
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.4 - Sexual reproduction in humans

CONTENTS

13 Excretion in humans
13.1 Excretion in humans

14 Coordination and response

14.1 Coordination and response
14.2 Sense organs
14.3 Hormones
14.4 Homeostasis
14.5 Tropic responses

15 Drugs
15.1 Drugs

16 Reproduction
16.1 Asexual reproduction
16.2 Sexual reproduction
16.3 Sexual reproduction in plants
16.4 Sexual reproduction in humans
16.5 Sexual hormones in humans
16.6 Sexually transmitted diseases

17 Inheritance
17.1 Chromosomes, genes and proteins
17.2 Mitosis
17.3 Meiosis
17.4 Monohybrid inheritance
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.4 - Sexual reproduction in humans

Male reproductive system

SCROTUM BLADDER
Holds testes
outside body, PROSTATE GLAND
keeping them cool Adds fluid and
nutrients to sperm
to form semen

URETHRA
Passes semen (and
urine) through penis

SPERM DUCT
PENIS Carries sperm from
Transfers sperm testes to urethra
during sexual
intercourse

TESTES
Produce sperm
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.4 - Sexual reproduction in humans

Female reproductive system

OVIDUCT
Carries ovum to
uterus. The site
of fertilisation

OVARY
UTERUS Produces
Where the fetus ova (eggs)
develops

CERVIX
Ring of muscle
separating vagina
from uterus

VAGINA
Receives penis
during sexual
intercourse
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.4 - Sexual reproduction in humans

Sperm and egg cells

Adaptive features of sperm
Acrosome secretes enzymes that digest the egg membrane and jelly coat
Mid-piece contains many mitochondria to provide energy for movement
Flagellum (tail) propels the sperm forwards

ACROSOME

NUCLEUS

MID-PIECE

FLAGELLUM
Enzymes digest the egg's protective outer layer, allowing the sperm to enter
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.4 - Sexual reproduction in humans

Sperm and egg cells

Adaptive features of egg cells (ova)
Yolk droplets provide nutrition during early stages of development
Jelly coat changes at fertilisation to prevent more than one sperm from entering

NUCLEUS JELLY COAT

YOLK DROPLETS

CYTOPLASM

Yolk droplets contain proteins and fats

Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.4 - Sexual reproduction in humans

Sperm and egg cells

Motility
Sperm are motile (move with the help of flagellum)
Eggs are static
Size
Sperm are much smaller than egg cells
Number
Sperm are produced in much larger numbers than egg cells
Females have a limited number of eggs
Only one egg is released from an ovary each month (see 16.5)

Egg cells (ova) are around 10,000 times larger than sperm
A single ejaculation can contain up to 300 million sperm
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.4 - Sexual reproduction in humans

Fertilisation and implantation

Fertilisation
The fusion of the nuclei from a male and a female gamete to form a zygote

ferti l i sati on zygote

fertilisation occurs
in the oviducts
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.4 - Sexual reproduction in humans

Fertilisation and implantation

Fertilisation
The fusion of the nuclei from a male and a female gamete to form a zygote
Implantation
In early development, the zygote forms an embryo
An embryo is a ball of cells that implants into the lining of the uterus

Sperm and egg Cel l di vi des

nucl ei fuse to formi ng an
form a zygote embryo

Embryo
i mpl ants i nto
l i ni ng of uterus
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.4 - Sexual reproduction in humans

Fertilisation and implantation

Fertilisation
The fusion of the nuclei from a male and a female gamete to form a zygote

Implantation
In early development, the zygote forms an embryo
An embryo is a ball of cells that implants into the lining of the uterus

Fol l owi ng i mpl antati on the

embryo conti nues to grow
and after around 8-9 weeks
becomes a fetus
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.4 - Sexual reproduction in humans

Development of the fetus

Placenta
acts as an interface between the blood of the mother and fetus

Umbilical cord
transports blood to and from the placenta and fetus

mother (uterus)

placenta

umbilical cord

embryo/fetus
Oxygen and nutrients pass from mother to fetus
Waste products pass from fetus to mother
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.4 - Sexual reproduction in humans

Development of the fetus

Amniotic sac
protects the fetus
provides a stable environment for development
Amniotic fluid
provides cushioning and support
helps to regulate temperature and pressure around the fetus

Throughout pregnancy the fetus is enclosed in a fluid filled sac called the amniotic sac
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.4 - Sexual reproduction in humans

Placenta and umbilical cord

Substances cross the placenta by diffusion
oxygen, glucose, amino acids, and ions pass across placenta from mother
delivered to fetus via umbilical cord
carbon dioxide and urea pass from fetus to placenta via umbilical cord
diffuse across placenta to mother

Capillaries in Capillaries in
uterus placenta

OXYGEN
GLUCOSE CARBON DIOXIDE
MOTHER UMBILICAL CORD FETUS
AMINO ACIDS UREA
IONS
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.4 - Sexual reproduction in humans

Placenta and umbilical cord

PLACENTA

UMBI LI CAL CORD UTERI NE LI NI NG

FETUS’ BLOOD MOTHER’ S BLOOD

VESSELS VESSELS
Some pathogens and toxins can pass across the placenta and affect the fetus
16.5

CHAPTER 16
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.5 - Sexual hormones in humans

CONTENTS

13 Excretion in humans
13.1 Excretion in humans

14 Coordination and response

14.1 Coordination and response
14.2 Sense organs
14.3 Hormones
14.4 Homeostasis
14.5 Tropic responses

15 Drugs
15.1 Drugs

16 Reproduction
16.1 Asexual reproduction
16.2 Sexual reproduction
16.3 Sexual reproduction in plants
16.4 Sexual reproduction in humans
16.5 Sexual hormones in humans
16.6 Sexually transmitted diseases

17 Inheritance
17.1 Chromosomes, genes and proteins
17.2 Mitosis
17.3 Meiosis
17.4 Monohybrid inheritance
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.5 - Sexual hormones in humans

Puberty
The period of time during which boys and girls reach sexual maturity and become
capable of reproduction

Males
begin to produce sperm
testes produce testosterone (male sex hormone)
Females
begin to release eggs
ovaries produce oestrogen (female sex hormone)

The sex hormones induce the development of secondary sexual characteristics

Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.5 - Sexual hormones in humans

Secondary sexual characteristics

Characteristics that are indirectly related to reproduction

OESTROGEN SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERI STI CS

Growth of Wi deni ng of Growth of Enl argement

Produced i n
breasts for hi ps for pubi c and of uterus
the ovari es
breastfeedi ng chi l dbi rth underarm hai r and vagi na

I ncrease i n
hei ght (growth
spurt)

Oestrogen induces the development of secondary sexual characteristics in females

Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.5 - Sexual hormones in humans

Secondary sexual characteristics

Characteristics that are indirectly related to reproduction

TESTOSTERONE SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERI STI CS

Produced i n Enl argement of Deepeni ng of Growth of pubi c, underarm,

the testes peni s and testes voi ce chest and faci al hai r

Increase in
height (growth
spurt)

Testosterone induces the development of secondary sexual characteristics in males

Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.5 - Sexual hormones in humans

The menstrual cycle

The ovaries release an ovum every 28 days
Changes in the lining of the uterus
Blood and cells are expelled through vagina ~days 1-5 (menstruation)
Uterine lining thickens in preparation for potential implantation of embryo
Ovum is released from an ovary ~day 14 (ovulation)
Continued thickening and maintenance of uterine lining
If ovum is not fertilised, uterine lining breaks down

Thi ckeni ng of the uteri ne l i ni ng

DAY 01 DAY 05 DAY 14 DAY 28

Potenti al for
MENSTRUATION OVULATION
ferti l i sati on

Menstruation is also known as a menstrual period

Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.5 - Sexual hormones in humans

The menstrual cycle

Thi ckeni ng of the uteri ne l i ni ng

DAY 01 DAY 05 DAY 14 DAY 28

Potenti al for
MENSTRUATION OVULATION ferti l i sati on
Lining of the An ovum is
uterus breaks released from
down an ovary

Ovum matures
The lining of the uterus thickens, allowing for the successful implantation
and development of an embryo (if the ovum is fertilised by a sperm cell)
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.5 - Sexual hormones in humans

The menstrual cycle

The ovaries release an ovum every 28 days
Changes in the ovaries
Follicle (and ovum) grows and matures
Follicle ruptures and releases ovum ~day 14 (ovulation)
Follicle becomes a Corpus Luteum
If egg is not fertilised, Corpus Luteum degenerates, another ovum starts to mature

mature fol l i cl e

OVARY

OVULATI ON
(ovum rel eased
i nto ovi duct)

CORPUS LUTEUM

Corpus Luteum means ‘yellow body‘

 Ovulation

Corpus luteum

Follicle

Ovum (egg)
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.5 - Sexual hormones in humans

The menstrual cycle

FOLLI CLE DEVELOPS

OVULATI ON

CL DEGENERATES

CORPUS LUTEUM
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.5 - Sexual hormones in humans

Sexual hormones
The menstrual cycle and pregnancy are controlled by hormones
FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)
Stimulates development of follicle and egg in ovary
Stimulates ovaries to secrete oestrogen
Oestrogen
Produced by ovaries during the menstrual cycle
Stimulates thickening of uterine lining for potential implantation of embryo
Produced by placenta during pregnancy
Stimulates LH production
LH (luteinising hormone)
Stimulates ovulation
Progesterone
Produced by Corpus Luteum
Maintains and thickens the uterine lining
If fertilisation does not occur, Corpus Luteum stops producing progesterone and the
uterine lining breaks down (menstruation)
Produced by the placenta during pregnancy
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.5 - Sexual hormones in humans

Sexual hormones LH
triggers ovulation
peaks around day 14
OESTROGEN
thickens lining of uterus for
potential implantation PROGESTERONE
stimulates LH production produced by Corpus Luteum
FSH thickens/maintains uterine
stimulates development of lining
follicles in preparation for
ovulation

DAY 01 DAY 05 DAY 14 DAY 28

MENSTRUATION OVULATION
 Oestrogen and progesterone are produced by the placenta during pregnancy.
These hormones help to maintain the lining of the uterus throughout pregnancy.
16.6

CHAPTER 16
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.6 - Sexually transmitted infections

CONTENTS

13 Excretion in humans
13.1 Excretion in humans

14 Coordination and response

14.1 Coordination and response
14.2 Sense organs
14.3 Hormones
14.4 Homeostasis
14.5 Tropic responses

15 Drugs
15.1 Drugs

16 Reproduction
16.1 Asexual reproduction
16.2 Sexual reproduction
16.3 Sexual reproduction in plants
16.4 Sexual reproduction in humans
16.5 Sexual hormones in humans
16.6 Sexually transmitted diseases

17 Inheritance
17.1 Chromosomes, genes and proteins
17.2 Mitosis
17.3 Meiosis
17.4 Monohybrid inheritance
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.6 - Sexually transmitted infections

Sexually transmitted infections

Sexually transmitted infection (STI)
an infection that is transmitted through sexual contact
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
HIV is a pathogen that causes an STI
HIV infection may lead to AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)

HIV is present in the bodily fluids of infected HIV affects antibody production, making the
people (e.g. blood and semen) sufferer more vulnerable to other diseases
The immune systems of people with AIDS have been severely damaged
by the HIV virus, leaving them highly vulnerable to other pathogens.
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.6 - Sexually transmitted infections

Sexually transmitted infections

Methods of HIV transmission
unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected partner
sharing infected needles (drug use)
contaminated blood transfusions or organ transplants
from the mother via placenta or breastmilk

HIV METHODS OF TRANSMISSION

A pathogen Unprotected Shari ng Contami nated From mother

that causes sexual i nfected bl ood vi a pl acenta or
an STI i ntercourse needl es transfusi ons breastmi l k
HIV cannot be transmitted by mosquitoes or through
casual contact like shaking hands or sharing utensils
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.6 - Sexually transmitted infections

Sexually transmitted infections

Controlling the spread of STIs

Usi ng Avoi di ng Regul ar Medi cal Absti nence i f

condoms casual sex STI testi ng treatment i nfected

Usi ng steri l e Del i veri ng sex Taki ng precauti ons

needl es educati on when breastfeedi ng
Condoms act as a b arrier to pathogens
Having multiple sexual partners increases risk of transmission
Those who test positive for an STI should seek medical treatment immediately
and abstain from sexual intercourse until the infection has been eradicated.