Chapter 5
Fundamentals of Frequency Modulation
Topics Covered in Chapter 5
▪ 5-1: Basic Principles of Frequency Modulation
▪ 5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
▪ 5-3: Modulation Index and Sidebands
▪ 5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
▪ 5-5: Frequency Modulation Versus Amplitude
Modulation
Lecture Objectives
▪ The lecture objectives are,
▪ The student can define frequency modulation.
▪ The student can define frequency deviation and
frequency deviation rate.
▪ The student can define frequency shift keying.
▪ The student can solve simple problems to determine
frequency deviation.
5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
▪ A sine wave carrier can be modified for the purpose of
transmitting information from one place to another by
varying its frequency. This is known as frequency
modulation (FM).
▪ In FM, the carrier amplitude remains constant and the
carrier frequency is changed by the modulating signal.
5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
▪ As the amplitude of the information signal varies, the
carrier frequency shifts proportionately.
▪ As the modulating signal amplitude increases, the
carrier frequency increases.
▪ With no modulation, the carrier is at its normal center
or resting frequency.
5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
▪ Frequency deviation (fd) is the amount of change in
carrier frequency produced by the modulating signal.
▪ The frequency deviation rate is how many times per
second the carrier frequency deviates above or below
its center frequency.
▪ The frequency of the modulating signal determines the
frequency deviation rate.
▪ For example, a 1000 Hz modulating signal would
imply that the carrier frequency shifts above and below
the center frequency 1000 times per second.
5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
▪ Frequency modulation is shown in Figure 5-1.
▪ The carrier is normally a sine wave but is taken as a
triangular wave for better illustration as shown in
Figure 5-1(a).
▪ The modulating signal is a sine wave as shown in
Figure 5-1(b).
▪ An FM signal is shown in Figure 5-1(c).
▪ As the modulating signal increases, the frequency of
the carrier increases.
▪ The maximum frequency of the carrier occurs at the
positive peak of the modulating signal.
5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
Figure 5-1: FM and PM
signals. The carrier is drawn
as a triangular wave for
simplicity, but in practice it is
a sine wave. (a) Carrier. (b)
Modulating signal. (c) FM
signal. (d) PM signal.
5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
▪ When the modulating signal is zero, the carrier
frequency is at its resting frequency.
▪ As the modulating signal decreases, the frequency of
the carrier decreases.
▪ The minimum frequency of the carrier occurs at the
negative peak of the modulating signal.
5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
▪ A type of modulation called frequency-shift keying
(FSK) is used in transmission of binary data in digital
cell phones and low-speed computer modems.
5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
Example
▪ A transmitter operates on a frequency of 915 MHz. The
maximum FM deviation is 12.5 kHz. What are the
maximum and minimum frequencies that occur during
modulation?
915 MHz = 915000 kHz
Max deviation = 915000 + 12.5 = 915012.5 kHz
Min deviation = 915000 – 12.5 = 914987.5 kHz
Lecture Objectives
▪ The lecture objectives are,
▪ The student can explain the principle of phase
modulation.
▪ The student can define the relationship between the
modulating signal and the carrier frequency deviation.
▪ The student can explain the production of indirect FM.
▪ The student can define phase shift keying.
5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
▪ When the amount of phase shift of a constant-
frequency carrier is varied in accordance with a
modulating signal, the resulting output is a phase-
modulation (PM) signal.
▪ Phase modulators produce a phase shift which is a
time separation between two sine waves of the same
frequency and amplitude.
▪ The greater the amplitude of the modulating signal,
the greater the phase shift.
5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
▪ Assume that a positive going intelligence signal
produces a leading phase shift.
▪ A leading phase shift speeds up the carrier output.
▪ Speeding of the carrier output implies that the carrier
has been compressed.
▪ In other words, the frequency has been increased.
5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
▪ Assume that a negative going intelligence signal
produces a lagging phase shift.
▪ A lagging phase shift increases the delay of the carrier
output.
▪ Increase in the delay of the carrier output implies that
the carrier has been stretched.
▪ In other words, the frequency has been lowered.
5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
▪ It is important to note that the frequency variation in
PM occurs only when the phase of the carrier is
changing.
▪ Figure 5-3 shows FM and PM modulation of a carrier
by a triangular wave whose peak has been clipped off.
▪ A frequency modulator produces a FM signal as
shown in Figure 5-3(b).
▪ During t0 the modulating signal is zero and the carrier
is at its resting frequency.
▪ During t1 the signal is positive and rising and the
carrier frequency increases.
5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
Figure 5-3: A frequency shift
occurs in PM only when the
modulating signal amplitude
varies. (a) Modulating
signal. (b) FM signal. (c) PM
signal.
5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
▪ During t2 the signal is a positive constant and the
carrier frequency remains constant and high.
▪ During t3 the signal is decreasing and finally becomes
negative and the carrier frequency decreases.
▪ During t4 the signal is a negative constant and the
carrier frequency remains constant and low.
▪ During t5 the signal is increasing and finally becomes
positive and the carrier frequency increases.
5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
▪ A phase modulator produces a PM signal as shown in
Figure 5-3(c).
▪ During t1 the signal is positive and rising and the
carrier phase leads and continuously changes which
also increases the carrier frequency.
▪ During t2 the signal is a positive constant and the
carrier phase has maximum lead, but the carrier
frequency is at its resting frequency with only phase
changed.
5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
▪ During t3 the signal is decreasing and finally becomes
negative, the carrier phase lags and continuously
changes which also lowers the carrier frequency.
▪ During t4 the signal is a negative constant and the
carrier phase has maximum lag, but the carrier
frequency is at its resting frequency with only phase
changed.
▪ During t5 the signal is increasing and finally becomes
positive, the carrier phase leads and continuously
changes which also increases the carrier frequency.
5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
▪ From Figure 5-1, and Figure 5-3, it can be concluded
that the FM produced by the PM modulator is equal to
differentiating the modulating signal and then applying
FM modulation to it.
5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
Relationship between the Modulating Signal and Carrier
Deviation
▪ In FM and in PM, the frequency deviation is directly
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
▪ As already discussed, in PM, the frequency deviation is
equal to the derivative of the modulating signal.
▪ For example, if the modulating signal is sint which
becomes 2sint, then its derivative would double from
cost to 2 cost.
▪ Therefore, the frequency deviation in PM would double
from to 2.
5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
Relationship between the Modulating Signal and Carrier
Deviation
▪ In PM, the carrier frequency deviation is also
proportional to the modulating frequency.
▪ As discussed, in PM, the frequency deviation is equal to
the derivative of the modulating signal.
▪ For example, if the modulating signal is sint which
becomes sin2t, then its derivative would double from
cost to 2 cos2t.
▪ Therefore, the frequency deviation in PM which is a
function of the amplitude of the derivative, would double
from to 2.
5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
Figure 5-4: Frequency deviation as a function of (a) modulating signal amplitude and
(b) modulating signal frequency.
5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
Converting PM into FM
▪ In order to make PM compatible with FM, the deviation
produced by frequency variations in the modulating
signal must be compensated for.
▪ This compensation can be accomplished by passing the
intelligence signal through a low-pass RC network.
▪ This RC low-pass filter is called a frequency-
correcting network, predistorter, or 1/f filter and
causes the higher modulating frequencies to be
attenuated.
▪ The FM produced by a phase modulator is called
indirect FM.
5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
Phase-Shift Keying
▪ The process of phase modulating a carrier with binary
data is called phase-shift keying (PSK) or binary
phase-shift keying (BPSK).
▪ The PSK signal has a constant frequency, but the
phase of the signal, from some reference, changes as
the binary modulating signal occurs.
5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
Figure 5-6: Phase modulation of a carrier by binary data produces PSK.
Lecture Objectives
▪ The lecture objectives are,
▪ The student can explain the production of sidebands in
FM.
▪ The student can define modulation index in FM.
▪ The student can define deviation ratio.
▪ The student can give the FM equation and define
Bessel Functions.
▪ The student can define narrowband FM.
▪ The student can calculate the FM bandwidth.
▪ The student can state the Carson’s rule.
5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
▪ Any modulation process produces sidebands.
▪ The bandwidth of an FM signal is usually much wider
than that of an AM signal with the same modulating
signal.
▪ In FM, sidebands whose amplitude are less than 1
percent of the unmodulated carrier, are not
considered.
5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Modulation Index
▪ The ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating
frequency is known as the modulation index (mf).
fd
mf = =
fm fm
where fd (also denoted as ) is the frequency deviation
and fm is the modulating frequency.
5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Modulation Index
▪ In most communication systems using FM, maximum
limits are put on both the frequency deviation and the
modulating frequency.
▪ In standard FM broadcasting, the maximum permitted
frequency deviation is 75 kHz and the maximum
permitted modulating frequency is 15 kHz.
▪ The modulation index for standard FM broadcasting is
therefore, mf =75/15=5.
▪ The ratio of the maximum frequency deviation and the
maximum modulating frequency is called the deviation
ratio.
5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Modulation Index
Example
▪ What is the deviation ratio of TV sound if the maximum
deviation is 25 kHz and the maximum modulating
frequency is 15 kHz?
f d 25
mf = = = 1.667
f m 15
5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Bessel Functions
▪ The frequency modulation equation is given as,
v FM = V c sin 2 f ct + m f sin(2 f mt )
▪ The second term is the phase angle of the carrier.
▪ The phase angle of the carrier is the sine wave
modulating signal.
▪ The equation that expresses the phase angle in terms
of the sine wave modulating signal is solved with a
complex mathematical process known as Bessel
functions.
5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Bessel Functions
▪ Bessel coefficients are widely available and it is not
necessary to memorize or calculate them.
▪ The Bessel function is given as,
5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Bessel Functions
▪ The amplitude of the sidebands are given by the Jn
coefficients as given below,
n
mf (mf )2 (mf )4
J n (mf ) = n 1 − +
2 n ! 2(2n + 2) 2 4(2n + 2)(2n + 4)
(mf )6
− +
2 4 6(2n + 2)(2n + 4)(2n + 6)
where n is the sideband number, and n=0 is the carrier.
5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Bessel Functions
▪ Figure 5-8 gives the Bessel coefficients for a variety of
modulation indexes.
▪ Sidebands with relative amplitudes of less than 1% of
the carrier amplitude are not included.
▪ Negative signs for carrier and sidebands imply a 180
phase shift.
▪ Figure 5-9 plots the Bessel functions as functions of mf.
▪ As shown in Figure 5-9, the carrier amplitude and the
sidebands amplitudes vary with the modulating index.
▪ In contrast, in AM, the carrier amplitude stays constant.
5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Figure 5-8: Carrier and sideband amplitudes for different modulation indexes of FM
signals based on the Bessel functions.
5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Figure 5-9: Plot of the Bessel function data from Fig. 5-8.
5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Bessel Functions
▪ As shown in Figure 5-9, the carrier amplitude becomes
zero for mf = 2.4, 5.5, and 8.7.
▪ As shown in Figure 5-8 and Figure 5-9, the carrier
amplitude is 1 for no modulation (mf = 0).
▪ For mf = 0.25, there are only two sidebands present.
▪ The modulation index mf = 0.25 is a special case of FM
where only two sidebands are produced similar to AM.
▪ It is called narrowband FM or NBFM.
▪ Narrowband FM (NBFM) is any FM system in which
the modulation index is less than π/2 = 1.57, or
mf < π /2.
5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Bessel Functions
▪ For true NBFM, the mf should be much lower than 1.57
and it should be within 0.2 to 0.25.
▪ However, the definition of NBFM is often relaxed to
include higher values of mf , such as mf = 1.67.
▪ NBFM is widely used in communication.
▪ NBFM conserves spectrum space at the expense of the
signal-to-noise ratio.
5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
FM Signal Bandwidth
▪ The higher the modulation index in FM, the greater the
number of significant sidebands and the wider the
bandwidth of the signal.
▪ When spectrum conservation is necessary, the
bandwidth of an FM signal can be restricted by putting
an upper limit on the modulation index.
5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
FM Signal Bandwidth
▪ Example:
If the highest modulating frequency is 3 kHz and the
maximum deviation is 6 kHz, what is the modulation
index?
mf = 6 kHz/3 kHz = 2
What is the bandwidth?
BW = 2fmN
From Figure 5-8, N = 4 for mf = 2, where N is the
number of significant* sidebands.
BW = 2(3 kHz)(4) = 24 kHz
*Significant
sidebands are those that have an amplitude of greater than 1% (.01)
in the Bessel table.
5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
FM Signal Bandwidth: Carson’s Rule
▪ The bandwidth of an FM signal can also be determined with
the Carson’s rule.
▪ The bandwidth given by the Carson’s rule is,
BW = 2 f d (max) + f m (max)
▪ The bandwidth of the FM signal given in the previous
example would be,
BW = 2(6 kHz + 3 kHz) = 2(9 kHz) = 18 kHz
▪ The bandwidth calculated with the Carson’s rule would
always be lower than the that calculated from BW = 2fmN.
5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
FM Signal Bandwidth: Carson’s Rule
▪ Example
▪ Determine the bandwidth of an FM signal with a
frequency deviation, fd = 30 kHz and fm = 5 kHz using
(a) the formula, BW = 2fmN and (b) the Carson’s rule.
f d 30
mf = = =6
fm 5
From Figure 5-8, nine sidebands are found for mf = 6.
Therefore, BW = 2fmN = 2(5 kHz)9 = 90 kHz
Using Carson’s rule, BW = 2(30 kHz + 5 kHz) = 70 kHz
Lecture Objectives
▪ The lecture objectives are,
▪ The student can explain the phase shift in FM due to
noise.
▪ The student can calculate the phase shift and frequency
deviation in FM due to noise.
▪ The student can explain the improvement of S/N ratio at
the FM receiver.
▪ The student can define preemphasis and deemphasis.
5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
▪ FM signals have a constant modulated carrier
amplitude.
▪ FM receivers contain limiter circuits that deliberately
restrict the amplitude of the received signal.
▪ Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM signal
are effectively clipped by limiter circuits as shown in
Figure 5-11.
▪ This amplitude clipping does not affect the information
content of the FM signal, since it is contained solely
within the frequency variations of the carrier.
▪ The demodulation of FM signal at the receiver
improves the S/N ratio as discussed next.
5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Figure 5-11: An FM signal with noise.
5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Noise and Phase Shift
▪ Assume that the signal is a sine wave and the noise is
also a high frequency sine wave, both of which can be
represented by phasors.
▪ The phase shift is maximum when the noise phasor is
orthogonal to the signal phasor.
▪ The composite signal C is the phasor sum of the signal,
S, and the noise N.
▪ Due to the limiter circuit, C = S, and the maximum
phase shift is given as,
N
= sin −1
S
5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Noise and Phase Shift
▪ The phase shift for a signal with a S/N ratio of 3 would
be,
N −1 1
= sin−1
= sin
= 19.47 = 19.47 = 0.339 rad
S 3 180
▪ The frequency variation is given as,
= (f m )
▪ Assuming fm = 800 Hz, the frequency variation is,
= 0.339(800) = 271.8 Hz
5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Noise and Phase Shift
▪ Assuming that the maximum frequency deviation, fd is
5000 Hz, the percentage change in the frequency due
to noise is given as,
Freq change
% change in freq = 100
fd
271.8
% change in freq = 100 = 5.43 %
5000
▪ The new S/N is calculated as given next.
5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Noise and Phase Shift
▪ The % change in frequency is the ratio of the frequency
change due to the noise to the maximum frequency
deviation due to the signal.
▪ It is therefore a Noise to Signal (N/S) ratio.
▪ The new S/N ratio is found by taking the reciprocal of
the N/S ratio.
▪ Therefore, the new S/N ratio at the receiver is
calculated as S/N = 1/0.0543 = 18.42.
5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Noise and Phase Shift
▪ Example
▪ The input to an FM receiver has a S/N of 2.8. Find the
frequency deviation caused by the noise if fm = 1.5 kHz
and fd = 4 kHz. Find the improved S/N?
1
= sin −1
= sin −1 0.3571 = 20.92
2.8
= (f m ) = (0.3652)(1.5 103 ) = 547.8 Hz
N 547.8 S 1
= = 0.13695 = = 7.3
S 4000 N N /S
5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Preemphasis
▪ Noise can interfere with an FM signal and particularly
with the high-frequency components of the modulating
signal.
▪ Noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy and contains a
lot of harmonics and other high-frequency components.
▪ To overcome high-frequency noise, a technique known
as preemphasis is used.
▪ A simple high-pass filter can serve as a transmitter’s
pre-emphasis circuit.
▪ Pre-emphasis provides more amplification to only high-
frequency components.
5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Figure 5-13 Preemphasis and deemphasis. (a) Preemphasis circuit.
5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Preemphasis
▪ A simple low-pass filter can operate as a deemphasis
circuit in a receiver.
▪ A deemphasis circuit returns the frequency response to
its normal flat level.
▪ The combined effect of preemphasis and deemphasis is
to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for the high-
frequency components during transmission so that they
will be stronger and not masked by noise.
5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Figure 5-13 Preemphasis and deemphasis. (c) Deemphasis circuit.
Lecture Objectives
▪ The lecture objectives are,
▪ The student can give the advantages and
disadvantages of FM.
▪ The student can give the uses of FM and AM.
5-5: Frequency Modulation Versus
Amplitude Modulation
Advantages of FM
▪ FM typically offers some significant benefits over AM.
▪ FM has superior immunity to noise, made possible by
clipper limiter circuits in the receiver.
▪ In FM, interfering signals on the same frequency are
rejected. This is known as the capture effect.
▪ FM signals have a constant amplitude and there is
no need to use linear amplifiers to increase power
levels. This increases transmitter efficiency.
5-5: Frequency Modulation Versus
Amplitude Modulation
Disadvantages of FM
▪ FM uses considerably more frequency spectrum space.
▪ In the past, the circuits used for frequency modulation
and demodulation involved were complex.
▪ With the proliferation of ICs, complex circuitry used in
FM has all but disappeared.
▪ ICs are inexpensive and easy to use.
▪ FM and PM have become the most widely used
modulation method in electronic communication today.
5-5: Frequency Modulation Versus
Amplitude Modulation
Major applications of AM and FM