MODULE 2: METHODS OF
PHILOSOPHIZING
LESSON 3: FALLACIES
-are errors or mistaken in
FALLACIES reasoning
- fake arguments
This arguments somehow could
sound convincing and very
FALLACIES persuasive to shape other’s
opinion and deliver biased
judgment and reason.
Using the same term several
times but the meaning of the
EQUIVOCATION term is different each time that
become confusing in the
argument.
A bank holds your money
SAMPLE OF securely.
EQUIVOCATION The river bank was eroded by
the flood.
SAMPLE OF EQUIVOCATION
Light can be defined as electromagnetic radiation visible to
the human eye.
Knowledge brings light to the mind.
COMPOSITION
Assuming that what is true of the part is also true
of the whole.
Many students in
this section is
highly intelligent.
SAMPLE OF
COMPOSITION
Therefore, the
entire section is
highly intelligent.
All the ingredients in
this dish are delicious
on their own.
SAMPLE OF
COMPOSITION Therefore, the dish is
delicious.
DIVISION
What is true of
the whole is
also true of the
part.
SAMPLE OF DIVISION
His entire family is a teacher.
For sure, he will also be a teacher.
SAMPLE OF DIVISION
Therefore, every
The company is
employee is
financially
financially
successful.
successful.
ARGUMENT FROM
IGNORANCE
What is not proven true is
false, what is not proven
false is true.
"The prosecution has
not proven that the
person on trial
What is not proven true is
committed thenotcrime,
SAMPLE OF false, what is proven
ARGUMENT so the person must be
false is true.
FROM innocent."
IGNORANCE
He/She appeals
APPEAL TO to public even if it
INAPPROPRIATE
AUTHORITY is not his/her
expertise
"A famous actress says that this new skin
cream can reverse aging, so it must be true.“
Why It's a Fallacy: The actress, despite her
fame, is not a dermatologist or scientist with
expertise in skin care or aging, that will make
her endorsement scientifically unreliable for
such claims.
APPEAL TO
THE PEOPLE
occurs when
someone tries to
convince others of
a point by
appealing to the
popularity of the
viewpoint rather
than presenting
substantive
evidence or logic.
SAMPLE OF
APPEAL TO THE
PEOPLE
"You should start
wearing X brand
sneakers.
Everyone is
wearing them
these days, and
they’re the hottest
trend right now!"
It is by using
emotions
such as pity
APPEAL TO or sympathy,
PITY/EMOTION one might be
able to
convince the
person.
“Please, let me in. I was
SAMPLE OF just late because I must
APPEAL TO
PITY/EMOTION attend to my son who is
sick.
APPEAL TO FORCE
Using the threat of
force or an
undesirable event
to advance an
argument.
SAMPLE OF APPEAL TO FORCE
"You should agree to our proposal, or else you’ll face
serious consequences. If you don’t comply, we'll be
forced to take legal action that could cost you a lot of
money and damage your reputation. “
FALSE CAUSE
The effect of
something is credited
to an incorrect cause.
SAMPLE OF FALSE CAUSE
"Ever since we started using that
new brand of cleaning products,
our sales have increased
significantly. Clearly, the cleaning
products are responsible for our
improved sales.”
BEGGING THE QUESTION
Assuming that what you are trying
to prove is true.
SAMPLE OF BEGGING THE QUESTION
"This new program is the best
for our students because it
provides the highest quality
education.“
“But how can you be sure it
provides the highest quality
education?“
"Because it’s the best program
for our students."
HASTY GENERALIZATION
One makes a generalization from a special
or accidental case or simply from
insufficient number of cases.
SAMPLE OF HASTY GENERALIZATION
A person visits a new city and, during their
stay, encounters two individuals who are
unfriendly. Based on these two encounters,
they conclude that everyone in the city is
rude.