Vehicle systems

Lecture notes
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Levent YÜKSEK
Chassis and production
Historical view
The first motor car bodies and chassis frames,
made between 1896 and 1910, were similar in
design to horse‐drawn carriages and, like the
carriages, were made almost entirely of wood.

The frames were generally made from heavy

ash, and the joints were reinforced by wrought
iron brackets which were individually fitted.
The panels were either cedar or Honduras
mahogany about 9.5 mm thick, glued, pinned
or screwed to the framework.

*ANDREW LIVESEY, A. ROBINSON, Repair of Vehicle Bodies, Butterworth‐Heinemann

Historical view
• The tops, on cars
which had them, were
of rubberized canvas
or other fabrics. Some
bodies were built with
closed cabs, and the
tops were held in
place by strips of wood
bent to form a solid
frame.

*ANDREW LIVESEY, A. ROBINSON, Repair of Vehicle Bodies, Butterworth‐Heinemann

Historical view
• About 1921 the Weymann
construction was introduced, in
which the floor structure carried all
the weight of the seating, and the
body shell, which was of very light
construction, was attached to the
floor unit. Each joint in the shell and
between the shell and the floor was
made by a pair of steel plates, one
on each side of the joint and bolted
through both pieces of timber,
leaving a slight gap between the two
pieces. The panelling was of fabric,
first canvas, then a layer of wadding
calico and finally a covering of
leather cloth. This form of
construction allowed flexibility in the
framing and made a very light and
quiet body frame, but the outer
covering had a very short life.

*ANDREW LIVESEY, A. ROBINSON, Repair of Vehicle Bodies, Butterworth‐Heinemann

Historical view
As the demand for vehicles increased it
became necessary to find a quicker
method of production. Up to that time
steel had been shaped by hand, but it was
known that metal in large sheets could be
shaped using simple die tools in presses,
and machine presses were introduced to
the steel industry to form steel sheets into
body panels. Initially the sheets were not
formed into complex shapes or contours,
and the first bodies were very square and
angular with few curves. The frame and
inner construction was still for the most
part made of wood.

*ANDREW LIVESEY, A. ROBINSON, Repair of Vehicle Bodies, Butterworth‐Heinemann

 Historical view
About 1923 the first attempts were made to build all‐
steel bodies, but these were not satisfactory as the design
principles used were similar to those which had been
adopted for the timber‐framed body. The real beginning
of the all‐steel body shell came in 1927, when presses
became capable of producing a greater number of panels
and in more complex shapes; this was the dawn of the
mass production era. During the 1930s most of the large
companies who manufactured motor vehicles adopted
the use of metal for the complete construction of the
body shell, and motor cars began to be produced in even
greater quantities.

*ANDREW LIVESEY, A. ROBINSON, Repair of Vehicle Bodies, Butterworth‐Heinemann

Historical view
Owing to the ever‐increasing demand
for private transport, competition
increased between rival firms, and in
consequence their body engineers
began to incorporate features which
added to the comfort of the driver and
passenger. This brought about the
development of the closed cars or
saloons as we know them today. Then
came the general use of celluloid for
windows instead of side curtains, and
next a raising and lowering mechanism
for the windows. Nowadays the
windscreen and door glasses are made
of laminated and/or toughened safety
glass. The window mechanism in use
today did not begin to develop until
well into the 1920s.

*ANDREW LIVESEY, A. ROBINSON, Repair of Vehicle Bodies, Butterworth‐Heinemann

Historical view
Mudguards, which began as
wooden or leather protections
against splattered mud, grew
into wide splayed deflectors in
the early part of the twentieth
century and then gradually
receded into the body work,
becoming gracefully moulded
into the streamlining of the
modern motor car and taking
the name of wings. Carriage
steps retained on earlier
models gave place to running
boards which in their turn
disappeared altogether.

*ANDREW LIVESEY, A. ROBINSON, Repair of Vehicle Bodies, Butterworth‐Heinemann

*ANDREW LIVESEY, A. ROBINSON, Repair of Vehicle Bodies, Butterworth‐Heinemann
Historical view
Steering between 1890 and 1906 was operated
by a tiller. This was followed by the steering
wheel which is in current use. The position of
the gear lever made an early change from the
floor to the steering column, only to return to
some convenient place on the floor.

*ANDREW LIVESEY, A. ROBINSON, Repair of Vehicle Bodies, Butterworth‐Heinemann

Historical view
Some of the first vehicles, or horseless
carriages as they were known, carried no lights
at all; then carriage candle lamps made their
appearance. Later came oil lamps, acetylene
lamps and finally the electric lighting system,
first fitted as a luxury extra and ultimately
becoming standard and finally obligatory
equipment which must conform with
legislation of the day.

When windscreens were first introduced such

accessories as windscreen wipers and washers
were unknown. Then came the single hand
operated wiper, followed by the suction wiper
and finally electrically driven wipers.

Images from, [Link]

*ANDREW LIVESEY, A. ROBINSON, Repair of Vehicle Bodies, Butterworth‐Heinemann

Historical view
• The design of the wheels
was at first dictated by
fashion. It was considered
necessary for the rear
wheels to be larger than
the front, a legacy from
the elegant horse‐drawn
carriages. Wooden spokes
and iron tyres were the
first wheels to appear, and
with both rear and front
wheels of the same
dimensions. Then came
the wooden‐spoked
artillery wheel with
pneumatic tyre.

*ANDREW LIVESEY, A. ROBINSON, Repair of Vehicle Bodies, Butterworth‐Heinemann

CHASSIS TYPES
 Body‐on‐frame

Since the 80’s it is a common Body Structure type for Medium and Heavy Pickup
trucks. The main characteristic is a sub frame attached to Body Structure by flexible
Body Mounts.
Unibody structure types‐ Space Frame

Space Frame: Framework of beams connected at nodes. The framework is responsible

to provide the structural integrity and performance. Usually the process used in order
to produce this kind of Body Structure is the Roll forming and Hydro form process, that
drives to be a low volume product.
*SAE‐2013‐36‐0142
 Unibody structure types‐ Central Close
Tunnel

Central Close Tunnel: Large member down the center portion of the vehicle,
responsible to bring structural integrity to the vehicle. This kind of construction limits
the quantity of seats on the vehicle.
*SAE‐2013‐36‐0142
Unibody structure types‐ Body Frame
Integral
This is the currently predominant configuration
for the passenger’s cars.

*SAE‐2013‐36‐0142
Chassis frame construction‐The chassis
frame
Most modern cars do in fact combine the frame
with the body. This integral or unitary construction
produces a stronger, lighter vehicle unit which is
cheaper to produce when a large number of similar
units are made. However, for heavier vehicle
applications (such as trucks) and some vehicles
where limited numbers are produced, the chassis
frame is a separate structural member to which the
main components, such as the engine, transmission
and body, are attached, i.e. it forms the ‘skeleton’ of
the vehicle.

*Alma Hillier, Hillier’s fundamentals of motor vehicle technology

 Body materials
Typical Body structure is assemble with metallic parts, usually steel, but nowadays, in
order to meet fuel consumption and performance requirements, new materials like
aluminum and Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS) have become very common on
this kind of usage.

*SAE‐2013‐36‐0142
 Chassis frame construction‐The chassis
frame
Whether in a car or a truck, a vehicle structure
has to withstand various static and dynamic
loads. The deflections of a simple rectangular
frame, consisting of two side‐members
connected together with two cross‐members.
These deflections are caused by the following
forces:

A. The weight of the components and

passengers gives a bending action; this
causes the frame to sag,
B. Road shocks, caused by vehicle motion or
impact with an obstacle, produce two types
of deflection in the frame
C. Lozenging, the term used when the
rectangular frame is pushed into a
parallelogram shape
D. Twisting due to a deflection at one corner of
the frame

The body and frame must be as light as

possible, yet offer maximum resistance to these
deflections.
*Alma Hillier, Hillier’s fundamentals of motor vehicle technology
 Chassis frame construction‐Frame
sections
The ideal frame section has a good resistance to
bending and torsional effects. The three main
forms are in general use are:
– Channel
– Tubular
– Box

*Alma Hillier, Hillier’s fundamentals of motor vehicle technology

Chassis frame construction‐Frame
sections

*Alma Hillier, Hillier’s fundamentals of motor vehicle technology

 Chassis frame construction‐Frame
sections

When a beam bends, the material is subjected

to a tensile and a compressive stress. The top
layers of the material being compressed, while
the bottom layers are extended. The mid‐layer
is not subjected to tension or compression,
and is known as the neutral axis.
A slightly deeper channel or box section can
give the same resistance to bending as a much
heavier solid, rectangular section. In a similar
Whenever a hole has to be drilled in a chassis manner, the distance between the top
member, either to reduce weight or to attach compression member and the lower tension
something, it should be positioned in a low‐ member is the main factor governing the
stress region, e.g. along the neutral axis. strength of the tubular frame
*Alma Hillier, Hillier’s fundamentals of motor vehicle technology
Chassis frame construction‐Frame
sections
When a force is applied to the centre of a
beam there is a tendency for the material to
break at its centre. This is because the stress is
greatest at this point, as shown in the
diagram. In order to resist this stress, either
the beam must have the same deep section
throughout its length, or a varying section of a
depth proportional to the stress suffered. The
latter design would be much lighter.

*Alma Hillier, Hillier’s fundamentals of motor vehicle technology

Chassis frame construction‐Frame
sections
Figure shows a pictorial view of a frame
suitable for a light truck or minibus that uses a
non‐independent suspension system. It
consists of two channel‐shaped side‐members,
which are held apart by a series of
crossmembers. These are positioned at points
of high stress and are cold‐riveted to the side‐
members. The depth of the channel section
must be sufficient to minimize deflection.

Lozenging of the frame is prevented by fitting

gusset plates to reinforce the joins between
the side‐ and crossmembers, or by adding X–
type (cruciform) bracing between two or more
of the cross members.

*Alma Hillier, Hillier’s fundamentals of motor vehicle technology

 Chassis frame construction‐Frame
sections
A backbone frame

A backbone frame, as shown in Figure is an In the past it was considered that safety for the occupants of a
car involved in a collision could be improved by making the
alternative construction to the conventional chassis frame very stiff. This is untrue because on impact a
rectangular frame. This consists of two ‘tank‐like’ structure subjects the occupants to an extremely
high deceleration. As a result the forces acting on the human
longitudinal, box‐section members welded body as it smashes into a hard surface are likely to cause death
or serious injury. Most modern frames overcome this problem
together at the centre and separated at the by constructing the front and rear ends of the frame in a
manner that allows them to absorb the main shock of the
front and rear so as to accommodate the main impact. Body panels in the vicinity of these crumple zones are
components. A series of outrigger frame generally damaged beyond repair when they suffer a
substantial impact, but this is a small price to pay for occupant
members are welded to the spine to support safety.
the floor of the body. *Alma Hillier, Hillier’s fundamentals of motor vehicle technology
The integral or unitary body structure of a car can be considered to be made in the form of three box
compartments; the middle and largest compartment stretching between the front and rear road wheel axles
provides the passenger space, the extended front box built over and ahead of the front road wheels enclosing
the engine and transmission units and the rear box behind the back axle providing boot space for luggage.
These box compartments are constructed in the form of a framework of ties (tensile) and struts
(compressive), pieces made from rolled sheet steel pressed into various shapes such as rectangular,
triangular, trapezium, top‐hat or a combination of these to form closed box thin gauge sections. These
sections are designed to resist direct tensile and compressive or bending and torsional loads, depending upon
the positioning of the members within the structure.
*H. Heisler, Advanced Vehicle Technology, Butterworth‐Heinemann
Unibody/Monocoque Chassis
Members
 Unibody/Monocoque Chassis Members
E‐Front header
D‐ ‘A’‐pillar

C‐Suspension tower

B‐Upper wing member

A‐Inner wing panel

T‐Dash panel
V‐Front bumper
U‐Motor compartment lower rail

J. C. Brown, A. J. Robertson, S. T. Serpento, Motor Vehicle Structures: Concepts and Fundamentals, Butterworth‐Heinemann
Unibody/Monocoque Chassis Members
G‐Rear parcel tray
F‐Roof stiffener
H‐Side roof rail

Q‐ Floor pan

S‐Lower A pillar R‐Sill

J. C. Brown, A. J. Robertson, S. T. Serpento, Motor Vehicle Structures: Concepts and Fundamentals, Butterworth‐Heinemann
Unibody/Monocoque Chassis Members
I‐ Rear header J‐ ‘C’ pillar

K‐ ‘D’ pillar

L‐Rear quarter panel

M‐Boot floor panel

N‐ Rear seatback ring

O‐Rear seat panel

P‐ ‘B’ pillar

J. C. Brown, A. J. Robertson, S. T. Serpento, Motor Vehicle Structures: Concepts and Fundamentals, Butterworth‐Heinemann
 Description and
function of body
components

*H. Heisler, Advanced Vehicle Technology, Butterworth‐Heinemann

Window and door pillars (3, 5, 6, and 8)

Windowscreen and door pillars are identified by

a letter coding; the front windscreen to door
pillars are referred to as A post, the centre side
door pillars as B post and the rear door to
quarter panel as D post.
These pillars form the part of the body structure
which supports the roof. The short form A pillar
and rear D pillar enclose the windscreen and
quarter windows and provide the glazing side
channels, whilst the centre B pillar extends the
full height of the passenger compartment from
roof to floor and supports the rear side door
hinges. The front and rear pillars act as struts
(compressive members) which transfer a
proportion of the bending effect, due to
underbody sag of the wheelbase, to each end of
the cantrails which thereby become reactive
struts, opposing horizontal bending of the
passenger compartment at floor level. The
central B pillar however acts as ties (tensile
members), transferring some degree of support
from the mid‐span of the cantrails to the floor
structure.

*H. Heisler, Advanced Vehicle Technology, Butterworth‐Heinemann

Windscreen and rear window rails (2)

These box‐section rails span the front window

pillars and rear pillars or quarter panels
depending upon design, so that they contribute
to the resistance opposing transverse sag
between the wheel track by acting as
compressive members. The other function is to
support the front and rear ends of the roof
panel. The undersides of the rails also include
the glazing channels.

*H. Heisler, Advanced Vehicle Technology, Butterworth‐Heinemann

Cantrails (4)

Cantrails are the horizontal members which

interconnect the top ends of the vertical A, B
and C and D door pillars (posts). These rails form
the side members which make up
the rectangular roof framework and as such are
subjected to compressive loads. Therefore, they
are formed in various box‐sections which offer
the greatest compressive resistance with the
minimum of weight and blend in with the
roofing. A drip rail (4) is positioned in between
the overlapping roof panel and the cantrails, the
joins being secured by spot welds.

Roof structure
The roof is constructed basically from four
channel sections which form the outer rim of the
slightly dished roof panel. The rectangular outer
roof frame acts as the compressive load bearing
members. Torsional rigidity to resist twist is
maximized by welding the four corners of the
channel‐sections together. The slight curvature of
the roof panel stiffens it, thus preventing
winkling and the collapse of the unsupported
centre region of the roof panel. With large cars,
additional cross‐rail members may be used to
provide more roof support and to prevent the
roof crushing in should the car roll over.
*H. Heisler, Advanced Vehicle Technology, Butterworth‐Heinemann
Upper quarter panel or window (6)

This is the vertical side panel or window which

occupies the space between the rear side door
and the rear window. Originally the quarter
panel formed an important part of the roof
support, but improved pillar design and the
desire to maximize visibility has either replaced
them with quarter windows or
reduced their width, and in some car models
they have been completely eliminated.

*H. Heisler, Advanced Vehicle Technology, Butterworth‐Heinemann

Sills (9)

These members form the lower horizontal sides

of the car body which spans between the front
and rear road‐wheel wings or arches. To prevent
body sag between the wheelbase of the car and
lateral bending of the structure, the outer edges
of the floor pan are given support by the side
sills. These sills are made in the
form of either single or double box‐sections . To
resist the heavier vertical bending loads they are
of relatively deep section. Open‐top cars, such as
convertibles, which do not receive structural
support from the roof members,
usually have extra deep sills to compensate for
the increased burden imposed on the
underframe.

*H. Heisler, Advanced Vehicle Technology, Butterworth‐Heinemann

Bulkhead (1)

This is the upright partition separating the

passenger and engine compartments. Its upper
half may form part of the dash panel which was
originally used to display the driver's
instruments. Some body manufacturers refer to
the whole partition between engine and
passenger compartments as the dash panel. If
there is a double partition, the panel next to the
engine is generally known as the bulkhead and
that on the passenger side the dash board or
panel. The scuttle and valance on each side are
usually joined onto the box‐section of the
bulkhead. This braces the vertical structure to
withstand torsional distortion and to provide
platform bending resistance support. Sometimes
a bulkhead is constructed between the rear
wheel arches or towers to reinforce the seat pan
over the rear axle

*H. Heisler, Advanced Vehicle Technology, Butterworth‐Heinemann

Front longitudinals (10)

These members are usually upswept box‐section

members, extending parallel and forward from
the bulkhead at floor level. Their purpose is to
withstand the engine mount reaction and to
support the front suspension or subframe. A
common feature of these members is their
ability to support vertical loads in conjunction
with the valances. However, in the event of a
head‐on collision, they are designed
to collapse and crumble within the engine
compartment so that the passenger shell is
safeguarded and is not pushed rearwards by any
great extent.

*H. Heisler, Advanced Vehicle Technology, Butterworth‐Heinemann

 Floor seat and boot pans

The horizontal spread‐out pressing between the bulkhead and the heel board is called the floor pan, whilst the raised
platform over the rear suspension and wheel arches is known as the seat or arch pan. This in turn joins onto a lower steel
pressing which supports luggage and is referred to as the boot pan. To increase the local stiffness of these platform panels
or pans and their resistance to transmitted vibrations such as drumming and droning, many narrow channels are swaged
(pressed) into the steel sheet, because a sectional end‐view would show a semi‐corrugated profile (or ribs). These channels
provide rows of shallow walls which are both bent and stretched perpendicular to the original flat sheet. In turn they are
spaced and held together by the semicircular drawn out channel bottoms. Provided these swages are designed to lay the
correct way and are not too long, and the metal is not excessively stretched, they will raise the rigidity of these panels so
that they are equivalent to a sheet which may be several times thicker.

*H. Heisler, Advanced Vehicle Technology, Butterworth‐Heinemann

 Central tunnel
This is the curved or rectangular hump positioned longitudinally along the middle of the floor pan. Originally it was a
necessary shape to provide transmission space for the gearbox and propeller shaft for rear wheel drive, front‐mounted
engine cars, but since the chassis has been replaced by the integral box‐ section shell, it has been retained with front wheel
drive, front‐mounted engines as it contributes considerably to the bending rigidity of the floor structure. Its secondary
function is now to house the exhaust pipe system and the hand brake cable assembly.
*H. Heisler, Advanced Vehicle Technology, Butterworth‐Heinemann
 Scuttle
This can be considered as the panel formed under the front wings which spans between the rear end of the valance, where
it meets the bulkhead, and the door pillar and wing. The lower edge of the scuttle will merge with the floor pan so that in
some cases it may form part of the toe board on the passenger compartment side. Usually these panels form inclined sides
to the bulkhead, and with the horizontal ledge which spans the full width of the bulkhead, brace the bulkhead wall so that
it offers increased rigidity to the structure. The combined bulkhead dash panel and scuttle will thereby have both upright
and torsional rigidity. *H. Heisler, Advanced Vehicle Technology, Butterworth‐Heinemann
Front
valance

These panels project upwards from the front longitudinal members and at the rear join onto the wall of the bulkhead. The purpose of these
panels is to transfer the upward reaction of the longitudinal members which support the front suspension to the bulkhead. Simultaneously, the
longitudinals are prevented from bending sideways because the valance panels are shaped to slope up and outwards towards the top. The
panelling is usually bent over near the edges to form a horizontal flanged upper, thus presenting considerable lateral resistance. Furthermore,
the valances are sometimes stepped and wrapped around towards the rear where they meet and are joined to the bulkhead so that additional
lengthwise and transverse stiffness is obtained. If coil spring suspension is incorporated, the valance forms part of a semi‐circular tower which
houses and provides the load reaction of the spring so that the merging of these shapes compounds the rigidity for both horizontal lengthwise
and lateral bending of the forward engine and transmission compartment body structure. Where necessary, double layers of sheet are used in
parts of the spring housing and at the rear of the valance where they are attached to the bulkhead to relieve some of the concentrated loads.
*H. Heisler, Advanced Vehicle Technology, Butterworth‐Heinemann
Rear valance (7)

This is generally considered as part of the box

section, forming the front half of the rear wheel
arch frame and the panel immediately behind
which merges with the heel board and seatpan
panels. These side inner‐side panels position the
edges of the seat pan to its designed side profile
and thus stiffen the underfloor structure above
the rear axle and suspension. When rear
independent coil spring suspension is adopted,
the valance or wheel arch extends upwards to
form a spring tower housing and, because it
forms a semi‐vertical structure, greatly
contributes to the stiffness of the underbody
shell between the floor and boot pans.

Toe board
The toe board is considered to form the lower
regions of the scuttle and dash panel near where
they merge with the floor pan. It is this panelling
on the passenger compartment side where
occupants can place their feet when the car is
rapidly retarded.

*H. Heisler, Advanced Vehicle Technology, Butterworth‐Heinemann

 Heel board
The heel board is the upright, but normally shallow, panel spanning beneath and across the front of the rear seats. Its
purpose is to provide leg height for the passengers and to form a raised step for the seat pan so that the rear axle has
sufficient relative movement clearance.
Description and function of body
components

*H. Heisler, Advanced Vehicle Technology, Butterworth‐Heinemann

Description and function of body
components

*H. Heisler, Advanced Vehicle Technology, Butterworth‐Heinemann

 Description and function of body
components
• The majority of the lengthwise (wheelbase) bending stiffness to resist sagging is derived from both the
central tunnel and the side sill box‐sections. If further strengthening is necessary, longitudinal box‐section
members may be positioned parallel to, but slightly inwards from the sills.

*H. Heisler, Advanced Vehicle Technology, Butterworth‐Heinemann

 Description and function of body
components
Torsional rigidity of the platform is usually
derived at the front by the bulkhead, dash pan
and scuttle at the rear by the heel board, seat
pan, wheel arches and if independent rear
suspension is adopted, by the coil spring towers.
Description and function of body
components
Bending resistance may be improved by using
longitudinal or cross‐member deep box‐
sections and tunnel sections to restrain the
platform chassis from buckling and to stiffen
the flat horizontal floor seat and boot pans. So
that vibration and drumming may be reduced,
many swaged ribs are pressed into these
sheets.
Beams and tunnels for Stiffnes
1955 Chevrolet

1960 Ford
 Beams and tunnels for Stiffnes
1962 Chevy II

1969 Pontiac
Modern design of the chassis
Side member floor pan

1‐Side member
2‐Crossrail
3‐Support member

Alfa Romeo Repair catalogue, [Link]

Rear floor panel
Spare tyre housing
Wall Behind The Seatback And Under
The Rear Window
Central body structure
Rear side frame structure
Side panels/plates
Side panels/plates
1‐Rear fender
2‐Cantrail
3‐Sill
Instrument panel wall
1‐Cover
2‐Dash panel sheet
3‐Dash panel sheet
4‐Boxed panel
Front end
Front end
Rear wheel house
1‐Wheel house
2&3 Glass Run
Roof
Rear covering
Rear suspension frame
Front suspension frame/Cradle
Bumpers
Doors
Mudgards
Bonnet
 Materials
• New automotive materials are constantly
being introduced to improve a vehicle’s crash
safety, noise and vibration, fuel economy, and
overall cost.
• Theoretically, a material can be used to make
vehicle parts if it is commercially available, can
be manufactured with an available
technology, and meets the performance
requirements.
Materials
Cadillac CT6
 Materials

Current Vehicle Material Mix Based Upon 14 Major Components from 42 Mass Produced
Vehicles
 Chassis materials
For the U‐Beam and S‐
Beam designs, the
material grade selection
was primarily influenced
by the durability and
extreme load cases.
Additional material
selection criteria included
formability, weldability,
availability and cost.

*Stell market development institute, Lightweight Twist Beam Final Report

*Future Generation Passenger Compartment Phase1 report, Auto steel partnership
 Chassis materials‐Steels
• Steel accounts for roughly 60% of the metal
used in an average vehicle. Modern vehicle
structures contains different grades of steels.
– Mild steels
– HSS‐High‐strength steels
– AHSS‐Advanced high‐strength steels
– UHSS‐Ultra high‐strength steels
 Chassis materials‐Steels
• Mild Steel: Mild steels are easy to form, which makes them a top choice for
automotive parts manufacturers using cold stamping and other dated
manufacturing processes. They have a maximum tensile strength of 270 MPa.
• High Strength Steel (HSS): High strength steels use traditional steels and remove
carbon during the baking cycle. This means softer steels can be formed, then
baked into harder metals. Typical tensile strength grades range from 250 to 550
MPa.
• High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA): HLSAs are carbon manganese steels strengthened
with the addition of a micro alloying element such as titanium, vanadium, or
niobium. These have a tensile strength up to 800 MPa, and can still be press
formed.
• Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS): Advanced high strength steels generally
yield strength levels in excess of 550 MPa. They are composites made of multiple
metals, then heated and cooled throughout the manufacturing process to meet a
part’s specifications.
• Ultra High Strength Steel (UHSS): These follow similar properties as AHSS, but
maintain strength levels of at least 780MPa.

*Technology Roadmaps: Intelligent Mobility Technology, Materials and Manufacturing

Processes, and Light Duty Vehicle Propulsion
• Boron/Martensite: Martensite is the hardest and strongest form of
steel, but it’s also the least formable. It shares properties with
boron, which has a tensile strength of around 1,200 to 1,800 MPa.
These are usually combined with softer steels to form composites.
• Aluminum 5000/6000 (AL 5000/6000): 5000‐series aluminum is
alloyed with magnesium. 6000‐series aluminum contains both
silicon and magnesium which forms magnesium silicide and makes
the aluminum alloy heat‐treatable.
• Magnesium: Magnesium is an attractive material for automotive
use because of its light weight. When alloyed, magnesium has the
highest strength‐to‐weight ratio of all structural metals.
• Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic (CFRP): CFRPs are extremely strong,
light plastics which contain carbon fibers to increase strength. They
are expensive to produce but will have a growing demand in the
future automotive industry as costs are reduced.
 AHSS‐UHSS
• Development of AHSS, and more recently
dual‐phase and ultra‐high‐strength steels
(UHSS), has resulted in steels with very high
tensile strengths, rated between 600 and 1100
MPa, due to higher percentages of martensite.
• Compared to conventional steels, AHSS are
said to enable lowering a vehicle’s body‐in‐
white structural mass by up to 25%
Audi A5 sportback
Volvo XC90
Audi A3
Mercedes W205
Volvo S90
Chevrolet silverado
Optimisation
Optimisation
 Optimisation

The regulatory pressure to reduce carbon emissions and the race to improve performance are drivers for change to the material mix
in the vehicles. Automakers are looking for materials with higher strength‐to‐weight ratio which reduces weight, while improving
performance. CAR research indicates the U.S. fleet will achieve a five percent curb weight reduction by 2025 through greater use of
aluminum predominantly in the closures and body‐structure. Interiors are also a recent focus for lightweighting as it is considered
dead weight. Figure shows the change in material mix in the U.S. fleet between 2010‐2040. Experts agree that no single material
wins in the race to lightweighting. A weight and performance optimized vehicle will have a mixed‐material body structure. The
industry is already experiencing this shift in recently introduced vehicles which use materials customized for each area of the car to
simultaneously advance driving dynamics, fuel economy, and cabin quietness.
*Technology Roadmaps: Intelligent Mobility Technology, Materials and Manufacturing
Processes, and Light Duty Vehicle Propulsion
Chassis materials‐Production methods
• The predominant manufacturing technology
today is cold stamping, but higher strength
steels are difficult to cold form. The use of hot
stamping is increasing as the heat increases
the ductility of the material which helps in
forming complex shapes without cracking.
Chassis materials‐Production methods
• Hot‐shaped steel sheets: tailored blanks of boron alloy
steel are heated to 950 degrees Celsius in a continuous
furnace and immediately quenched and shaped in a
water‐cooled die. Hot‐shaped steels are used in the
side sills, the longitudinal members, the center
console, the B‐pillars and the front cross members.
• Hot forming has become very important to the
automotive industry as a way of meeting specific crash‐
performance criteria and ensuring low overall weight
at an affordable cost. Global automakers use the
process to produce structural automotive parts such
as: B‐pillars; roof frames and bows; bumpers;
stiffeners; sills; and cross members.
New manufacturing technologies are also advancing to achieve the speed and cost effectiveness required for mass production. Hot forming of
steels is already used in high production parts and will reach maturity by 2025 as the need for ultra‐high strength steels increases. Maturity of
a technology is a subjective term which depends on the vehicle program. In broad terms, a mature technology can be used in mass‐produced
vehicles (volume over 100,000 units a year), has multiple product applications, and is available from multiple suppliers with a global supply
capability. Additive manufacturing, also called 3D printing, is a revolutionary technology with the potential to change the tool and die business
but is not yet suited for mass production in terms of cost or cycle time.
*Technology Roadmaps: Intelligent Mobility Technology, Materials and Manufacturing
Processes, and Light Duty Vehicle Propulsion
 Chassis materials‐Production methods
• Adhesives: Contains a wide range of glue‐type substances that can currently join
carpet, windshields, etc. but will soon have additional applications as an increase
in plastic parts is expected.
• Tailor Welded/Rolled Blanks and Laser Welded Blanks (TWB/TRB/LWB):
Combines several grades, thicknesses, and coatings of steel to place the best
material in the best places.
• Rivets/Self‐Piercing Riveting (SPR): Uses a high‐speed mechanical fastening
process for point joining sheet material, typically steels and aluminum alloys.
• Bolting: Uses pre‐drilled holes to insert a bolt and nut which can be tightened and
locked to bring two similar or dissimilar materials together.
• Laser Spot Welding (LSW): Uses advanced laser systems to create a weld
spot which fuses metals to a rigid connection.
• Flow Drill Screws (FDS): Uses self‐piercing and extruding fastener for joining layers
of sheet metal. This combines the properties of friction drilling and thread
forming, as the screw acts as both a fastener and a drilling‐and‐tapping tool.
 Cost

The cost of each part was calculated by multiplying the mass of the part with the normalized
cost factor for the material considered.
 Chassis materials‐Production methods

With new materials come new challenges. Joining dissimilar materials is not easy, and is
sometimes impossible to do using traditional resistance spot welding due to differences in
melting point. Joining technologies–such as adhesives and advanced fasteners–will play an
important role in achieving the optimized mixed‐material architecture, since they have the
ability to join any combination of dissimilar materials
*Technology Roadmaps: Intelligent Mobility Technology, Materials and Manufacturing
Processes, and Light Duty Vehicle Propulsion
Working with multiple materials in a manufacturing environment is not an easy task. Apart from joining, galvanic corrosion and thermal
management are two major issues engineers face while designing vehicles with mixed‐material body structures. While engineers worry more
about the technical challenges, purchasing and manufacturing executives are more concerned about the cost of new materials and potential
supply‐chain risks. Newer manufacturing technologies such as additive manufacturing, resin transfer molding, thin walled die casting, etc. are
not yet mature processes. These technologies have longer cycle times, as well as quality issues that need to be resolved for use in mass
production across‐the‐board. Upper scheme lists major challenges the auto‐industry is facing with new materials and mixed‐material
assemblies. *Technology Roadmaps: Intelligent Mobility Technology, Materials and Manufacturing
Processes, and Light Duty Vehicle Propulsion
 Chassis materials‐Aluminum
Aluminum automotive A growth market today, aluminum has been a key
components can be found material for automakers since the beginning. The first
nearly everywhere in cars and sports car featuring an aluminum body was unveiled
trucks today. Lighter than steel, at the Berlin International Motor Show in 1899. Two
aluminum is very ductile, highly years later, the first engine with aluminum parts was
recyclable, and can easily be developed by Carl Benz. Following World War II,
formed into parts, including aluminum had become inexpensive enough to be
those used for powertrain considered for use in mass‐produced vehicles. A
applications such as engine breakthrough occurred in 1961, when the British
blocks and heads. The material Land Rover company produced V‐8 engine blocks
makes dramatic reductions in made with aluminum cylinders. From there,
motor‐vehicle weight possible. aluminum automobile parts gained a foothold in
wheels and transmission casings and then moved into
cylinder heads and suspension joints. This infinitely
recyclable metal is now the leading material for use
in powertrain and wheel applications and continues
to gain market share in hoods, trunks, doors and
bumpers—and complete vehicle structures.
One of the main advantages of aluminum is its Aluminium is in fierce competitive with other
availability in a large variety of semi‐finished materials, like novel steels recently developed,
forms, such as shape castings, extrusions and claiming back the light weight potential by
sheet, all suitable for mass production and higher strength alloys suitable for reducing
innovative solutions. wall thickness. Other competitor materials are
magnesium, titanium and glass or carbon fibre
reinforced plastics. The latter has developed
further in the aerospace industries, now heavy
R&D efforts are made suitable for mass
production also for cars, especially innovative
electro cars. Innovative car concepts have
adopted the multi‐material design idea to use
for each function the “best” material available.

Jürgen HIRSCH, Recent development in aluminium for automotive applications, Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China
24(2014)
 Al Alloys
Formability
or Corrosion
Workability Weldability Machining Resistance Heat Treating Strength
Typical Applications
Alloy 1100 Excellent Excellent Good Excellent No Low Metal Spinning
Alloy 2011 Good Poor Excellent Poor Yes High General Machining
Alloy 2024 Good Poor Fair Poor Yes High Aerospace Application
Alloy 3003 Excellent Excellent Good Good No Medium Chemical Equipment
Alloy 5052 Good Good Fair Excellent No Medium Marine Applications
Alloy 6061 Good Good Good Excellent Yes Medium Structural Applications
Architectural
Alloy 6063 Good Good Fair Good Yes Medium Applications
Alloy 7075 Poor Poor Fair Average Yes High Aerospace Applications
Al Alloys

Alloying: Understanding the Basics J.R. Davis, p351‐416 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys
Producing lighter
automobiles, improving fuel
efficiency, and improving
vehicle performance have
been some of the
automobile industry’s top
challenges. The industry has
done its research on
material alternatives to steel
such as carbon fiber and
aluminum alloys.

Aluminum alloys designed

for automobiles weigh half
as much as traditional mild
steel and absorb twice as
much energy during
accidents. This makes
automobiles stronger,
lighter, safer, and more fuel
efficient.
Video
Al Alloys
Al Alloys
Al Alloys
Al Alloys
 Aluminum BIW
The AUDI A8 is a classical example with a scheduled volume of 25000 cars/year, a BIW mass of
277 kg; consisting of 59 extrusions (61 kg), 31 castings (39 kg) and 170 sheet parts (177 kg).
Riveting, MIG‐, laser‐, and hybrid welds, roll‐folding and adhesive bonding are the main joining
methods applied here.
 Plastics

Originally plastics were specified because they offered good mechanical properties combined with excellent appearance.
The application of plastic components in the automotive industry has been increasing over the last decades. Nowadays, the
plastics are used mainly to make cars more energy efficient by reducing weight, together with providing durability, corrosion
resistance, toughness, design flexibility, resiliency and high performance at low cost. The average vehicle uses about 150 kg
of plastics and plastic composites versus 1163 kg of iron and steel currently it is moving around 10‐15 % of total weight of
the car. The plastics contents of commercial vehicles comprise about 50 % of all interior components, including safety
subsystems, door and seat assemblies. A quick look inside any model of the car shows that plastics are now used in exterior
and interior components such as bumpers, doors, safety and windows, headlight and side view mirror housing, trunk lids,
hoods, grilles and wheel covers. Although up to 13 different polymers may be used in a single car model, just three types of
plastics make up some 66 % of the total plastics used in a car polypropylene 32 %, polyurethane 17 % and PVC 16 %.
Katarína Szeteiová, AUTOMOTIVE MATERIALS PLASTICS IN AUTOMOTIVE MARKETS TODAY,
 Plastics
PP – polypropylene is extremely chemically
resistant and almost completely impervious to
water. Black has the best UV resistance and is
increasingly used in the construction industry.
Application: automotive bumpers, chemical
tanks, cable insulation, battery boxes, bottles,
petrol cans, indoor and outdoor carpets,
carpet fibers.