FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

UNIT – I

Introduction
Fundamentals of vehicles - Components of conventional vehicles - drawbacks of conventional
vehicles – Need for electric vehicles - History of Electric Vehicles – Types of Electric Vehicles
– Advantages and applications of Electric Vehicles.

Vehicle

A vehicle is a piece of equipment designed to transport people or cargo. Vehicles include

wagons, bicycles, motor vehicles (motorcycles, cars, trucks, buses, mobility scooters for disabled
people), railed vehicles (trains, trams), watercraft (ships, boats, underwater vehicles), amphibious
vehicles (screw-propelled vehicles, hovercraft), aircraft (airplanes, helicopters, aerostats) and
spacecraft.

Fundamentals of vehicles

Acceleration, braking, turning, and ride are among the most fundamental properties of a
motor vehicle. The vehicle dynamics is the motion of the vehicle generated by the steering action,
through which the vehicle is capable of independent motion

The fundamentals of vehicle design involve the basic principles of physics, specially the
Newton's second law of motion. According to Newton's second law the acceleration of an object is
proportional to the net force exerted on it. Hence, an object accelerates when the net force acting on
it is not zero. In a vehicle several forces act on it and the net or resultant force governs the motion
according to the Newton's second law. The propulsion unit of the vehicle delivers the force
necessary to move the vehicle forward. This force of the propulsion unit helps the vehicle to
overcome the resisting forces due to gravity, air and tire resistance. The acceleration of the vehicle
depends on:

• The power delivered by the propulsion unit

• The road conditions

• The aerodynamics of the vehicle

• The composite mass of the vehicle

 The mathematical framework required for the analysis of vehicle mechanics based on
Newton's second law of motion.

The vehicle motion can be completely determined by analyzing the forces acting on it in the
direction of motion. The forces acting on a vehicle, moving up a grade, are shown in Figure 1. The
tractive force (Ft) in the contact area between the tires of the driven wheels and the road surface
propels the vehicle forward. The tractive force (Ft) is produced by the power plant and transferred
to the driving wheels via the transmission and the final drive. When the vehicle moves, it
encounters a resistive force that tries to retard its motion. The resistive forces are

• Rolling resistance

• Aerodynamic drag

• Uphill resistance

Figure 1: Forces acting on a vehicle going uphill

Where Frol is rolling friction, Faer is aero dynamic drag, Fclimb is accelerating force in inclined
surface and Fwind is force due to wind gust.

Using the Newton's second law of motion, the vehicle acceleration can be expressed as

(1)

2 Rolling Resistance

The rolling resistance of tires on hard surfaces is primarily caused by hysteresis in the tire
materials. This is due to the deflection of the carcass while the tire is rolling. The hysteresis causes
an asymmetric distribution of ground reaction forces. The pressure in the leading half of the contact
area is larger than that in the trailing half, as shown in Figure(a). This phenomenon results in the
ground reaction force shifting forward. This forwardly shifted ground reaction force, with the
normal load acting on the wheel centre, creates a moment that opposes the rolling of the wheel. On
soft surfaces, the rolling resistance is primarily caused by deformation of the ground surface as
shown in Figure (b). The ground reaction force almost completely Shifts to the leading half.
Figure 2: Tire deflection and rolling resistance on a (a) hard and (b) soft road surface

The moment produced by the forward shift of the resultant ground reaction force is called the
rolling resistant moment, as shown in Figure (a), and can be expressed as

To keep the wheel rolling, a force F, acting on the centre of the wheels, is required to balance this
rolling resistant moment. This force is expressed as

Where rd is the effective radius of the tire and fr= a/rd is called the rolling resistance
coefficient. In this way, the rolling resistant moment can be replaced equivalently by horizontal
force acting on the wheel centre in the opposite direction of the movement of the wheel. This
equivalent force is called rolling resistance with a magnitude of

Where P is the normal load, acting on the centre of the rolling wheel. When a vehicle is operated
on a slope road, the normal load, P, should be replaced by the component, which is perpendicular
to the road surface. That is
The rolling resistance coefficient, fr, is a function of the tire material, tire structure, tire
temperature, tire inflation pressure, tread geometry, road roughness, road material, and the presence
or absence.

The rolling resistance coefficient of passenger cars on concrete road may be calculated from the
following equation:

Where V is vehicle speed in km/h, and f0 and fs depend on inflation pressure of the tire.

In vehicle performance calculation, it is sufficient to consider the rolling resistance

coefficient as a linear function of speed. For the most common range of inflation pressure, the
following equation can be used for a passenger car on concrete road.

This equation predicts the values of fr with acceptable accuracy for speeds upto128km/h.

1.2 Aerodynamic Drag

A vehicle traveling at a particular speed in air encounters a force resisting its motion. This
force is referred to as aerodynamic drag. It mainly results from two components: shape drag and
skin friction.

Shape drag: The forward motion of the vehicle pushes the air in front of it. However, the air cannot
instantaneously move out of the way and its pressures thus increased, resulting in high air pressure.
In addition, the air behind the vehicle cannot instantaneously fill the space left by the forward
Motion of the vehicle. This creates a zone of low air pressure. The motion has therefore created
two zones of pressure that oppose the motion of a vehicle by pushing it forward (high pressure in
front) and pulling it backward (low-pressure in the back) as shown in Figure. The resulting force on
the vehicle is the shape drag.
Figure 3 :Shapedrag

Skin friction: Air close to the skin of the vehicle moves almost at the speed of the vehicle while air
far from the vehicle remains still. molecules move at a wide range of speeds. The difference in
speed between two air molecules produces a friction that results in the second component of
aerodynamic drag. Aerodynamic drag is a function of vehicle speed V, vehicle frontal area Af
shape of the vehicle, and air density ρ. Aerodynamic drag is expressed as

where CD is the aerodynamic drag coefficient that characterizes the shape of the vehicle and
Vw is the component of wind speed on the vehicle’s moving direction, which has a positive sign
when this component is opposite to the vehicle speed and a negative sign when it is in the same
direction as vehicle speed. The aerodynamic drag coefficients for a few types of vehicle body
shapes are shown in Figure

1.3 Grading Resistance

When a vehicle goes up or down a slope, its weight produces a component, which is always
directed to the downward direction, as shown in Figure This component either opposes the forward
motion (grade climbing) or helps the forward motion (grade descending). In vehicle performance
analysis, on uphill operation is considered. This grading force is usually called grading resistance.

The grading resistance, from Figure 2.5, can be expressed as

To simplify the calculation, the road angle, α, is usually replaced by grade value when the
road angle is small. As shown in Figure [Link], the grade is defined as
 In some literature, the tire rolling resistance and grading resistance together are called road
resistance, which is expressed as

When the road angle is small, the road resistance can be simplified as

Figure 4: Typical performance characteristics of gasoline engines

Figure 5: Tractive effort of internal combustion engine and a multi gear transmission vehicle vs.
vehicle speed

2. Components of Conventional vehicle:

An automobile has several numbers of parts. But there are four essential components of
automobile. These are:
a. The Chassis.
b. The Engine.
c. The Transmission System.
d. The Body.
Apart from these four essential parts of automobile, there are controls and auxiliaries.

The controls are meant for controlling the movement of the vehicle. The auxiliaries are additional
components meant for providing comfort to the user of the automobile.

a. The Chassis.

The chassis of an automobile has the frame, suspension system, axles, and wheel as the main
components.

It joins all the major assemblies such as an engine, components of transmission system such
as clutch, gearbox, propeller shaft, axles, a control system such as brakes and steering, and
suspension system of the vehicle. In other words, it is the vehicle without its body.
The frame could be in the form of conventional chassis or unit construction may be adopted.

In a conventional chassis frame, the frame forms the main skeleton of vehicle. It supports engine,
power transmission, and car body.

The frame is supported on wheels and axles through springs. The frame carries the weight
of the vehicle and passengers, withstands engine, transmission, accelerating, and braking torques. It
also withstands the centrifugal forces while cornering and takes up stresses due to the rise and fall
of axles.

In the unit construction type, there is no frame. The structure of the body of the
automobile is first formed, and then different components such as the engine, transmission system,
and other parts are placed at suitable places in the body structure.
 The other parts of the chassis are suspension system, axles, and wheel. The suspension
system absorbs the vibrations due to up and down movement of wheels.

The axle may be ‘live’ if power from the engine is transmitted to it. It may be a ‘dead’ axle
if no power is supplied to it and it is just supporting the weight of the vehicle.

In ‘four-wheel drive,’ the power is supplied to both the axles and therefore both the axles are ‘live.’

In addition to providing support to the weight of the vehicle, the axle also resists the stresses
due to braking and driving torque.

b. The Engine.
The power of the engine determines the working of the automobile. In the same manner, the
efficiency of the engine determines the efficiency of an automobile.

The engine, nowadays, is invariably an internal combustion engine. This may be spark-ignition
engine consuming petrol as fuel.

Alternatively, it could be a compression ignition engine using diesel as fuel.

The engines used are multi-cylinder engines. A single-cylinder engine, though capable of
providing the desired power may become very heavy and therefore may be unsuitable. In a multi-
cylinder engine, each cylinder handling a smaller amount of power may keep engine light in
weight.
 In an internal combustion engine, total heat produced by the burning of fuel is not converted
into work. Part of it causes over-all heating of engine which is undesirable. This heat is to be
dissipated properly. Coolant in the form of air or water may be used to take away this heat. So, an
engine can be air-cooled or water-cooled. These days some chemicals have been developed which
have a cooling property, and these remain unaffected for a longer period of time. The moving parts
in an engine need regular lubrication to reduce unwanted friction.

c. The Transmission System.

The transmission system transmits power developed by the engine to the road wheels. The
power available as output from the engine is in the form of rotation of the crankshaft.

The transmission system consists of different parts. These include clutch, gearbox, propeller shaft,
differential and axle, live axle.

i. Clutch.
The clutch, part of the transmission system is next to the crankshaft. It is a mechanism
enabling the rotary motion of one shaft transmitted to the second shaft ‘at will.’

When the engine starts, it should not be connected to road wheels, i.e., these should not start
moving as soon as the engine starts. Secondly, this motion should be smoothly transferred so that
passengers in the car do not feel discomfort, and its mechanism is not spoiled.

ii. Gearbox.
The gearbox is the component of the transmission system next to the clutch. It has got a
gear train, and it provides different gear ratios. These ratios determine the rotary speed of output
shaft from the gearbox.
The torque transmitted to the road wheels gives rise to a propulsive force or (tractive effort)
between these and the road. When starting from rest, a large tractive effort is required.

This makes essential the introduction of considerable ‘leverage’ mechanism between the
engine and the wheels so that torque from the engine, which is almost constant, produces the large
tractive effort.

This ‘leverage’ is provided by the gearbox.

Propeller shaft transmits the output from the gearbox to the axle. This axle may be in the
rear or in the front or in some cases both the rear and front axle may receive output from the
gearbox.

iii. Differential.

The differential is the next component of the transmission system. The motion of propeller
shaft is fed to the differential which turns it through 90 degrees. This is essential as the axle is at 90
degrees to the propeller shaft.

The function is performed with the help of a pinion and a gear. Another important function
of the differential is to reduce the speed of inner wheels and at the same time, enhance the speed of
outer wheels by the same amount.

This is required when the automobile is moving on a curved path. On a curved path, the outer
wheels are required to traverse a circle of a bigger radius than the inner wheels. This means that the
outer wheels are required to traverse larger distance as compared to inner wheels.
As the automobile is to move as a single unit, all the four wheels must travel together. Therefore,
the outer wheels should travel larger distance and inner wheels should travel smaller distance in the
same time period.

Hence, the variation in the speed of inner and outer wheels is needed. This is performed by
the differential with the help of sun and planet gear system.

iv. Axle.

The axle is the next component of the transmission system. The axle receiving power from
the engine is termed as ‘live’ axle. It is in two halves.

The ends of the axle have road wheels connected to it. These road wheels are in direct
contact with the road surface. The body of the automobile is above the axle.

The axle also takes up the various loads including the weight of the automobile. It also
transmits motion to the road wheels.

d. The Body

Many heavy vehicles now use ‘sub-frames’ of simple construction to which the engine and
gearbox are attached. The sub-frame is supported on the mainframe and is fixed on it through some
suitable rubber connections to isolate the engine vibrations.

Apart from the four basic components described above, the automobile has the control systems
and auxiliaries.

The control systems are used to control the motion of an automobile and therefore are essential
in an automobile. These include;

i. The steering system, and

ii. Braking system or brakes.

i. Steering system.

The automobile, while moving, may be required to traverse a circular path. It has to be
turned through some angle if the path is not straight.
 There may be other situations also when the road is turning towards left or right, and an
automobile is required to turn to left or right. This turning of the automobile towards left or right or
on the curved path is provided through steering mechanism.

The steering system is required to be quite accurate as the automobile should turn
accurately along with the path.

ii. Braking system.

This causes a reduction in speed of the vehicle and brings it to rest when necessary.
Bringing an automobile to rest is as important as its movement.

Obviously, when we have reached our destination, we would like to stop; and therefore, the vehicle
should come to rest.

Also, there may be some kind of emergency and vehicle may be required to slow down or stop on
the way. At that time, also its motion is to be controlled.

This control on the motion is provided with the help of brakes.

e. The Auxiliaries

These are the components of an automobile which may not be essential, but it can make the driving
more comfortable.

The fact is that with the passage of time, some auxiliaries become essential. A few years
back, the indicators—to indicate the turning vehicle—were not used. But now these have been
made mandatory by the government.

Though air-conditioner is not essential and is just to provide comfort conditions, now it is
provided in every vehicle in developed countries and is being adopted by more and more people.

The study of automobile engineering involves going through an in-depth study of all the
components and parts of automobile.

These include engine, transmission system, control, and auxiliaries.

 The engine used in an automobile is an internal combustion engine. The transmission system
consists of a number of parts, the introduction of which has already been presented.

Suspension systems, wheels, and tires are also important components, parts of automobile.
Study of steering mechanism and brakes is also important as these form the control system in an
automobile.

3. Drive Cycle

A driving cycle is a collection of data points that represents the speed of a vehicle over time.
Driving cycles are developed by many nations and organizations to assess automobile performance
in various characteristics such as fuel economy, electric vehicle autonomy, and hazardous
pollutants.

Another use for driving cycles is in vehicle simulations. More specifically, they are used in
propulsion system simulations to predict performance of internal combustion engines,
transmissions, electric drive systems, batteries, fuel cell systems, and similar components.

The driving cycle is performed on a chassis dynamometer, where tailpipes emissions of the
vehicle are collected and analysed to assess the emissions rates. In commercial vehicles area, the
driving cycle is not performed on a vehicle dynamometer but on an engine dynamometer and is
evaluated through a set of engine torque and speed points instead of vehicle speed points.

Some driving cycles are derived theoretically, as it is preferred in the European Union, whereas
others are direct measurements of a driving pattern deemed representative.

There are two types of driving cycles:

1. Transient driving cycles involve many changes, representing the constant speed changes
typical of on-road driving.
2. Modal driving cycles involve protracted periods at constant speeds.
 Drawbacks of conventional vehicles

• It runs on non-renewable energy sources.

• It produces harmful gases. So, it is not eco-friendly to the environment or atmosphere.
• It requires more maintenance.
• It produces noise.
• Costly refilling.

• Electric vehicle: A vehicle is an automobile that is propelled by one or more electric

motors, using electrical energy stored in the energy storage device.

• The primary components of electric vehicles are motor, controller, power source and
transmission.

Electric Vehicle Block diagram

Need for electric vehicles:

• Over dependence on petrol or diesel.

• Rising petrol and diesel rates.
• Pollution and the resultant global warming.
• Noise in conventional vehicles.
• Need for alternate power sources.
• Need for eco-friendly.
 ELECTRIC VEHICLE HISTORY

The history of EVs is interesting. It includes the insurgence of EVs following the
discovery of electricity and the means of electromechanical energy conversion and later being
overtaken by gasoline-powered vehicles. People digressed from the environmentally friendly
mode of transportation due to lack of technology in the early years, but they are again focused on
the correct track today.

THE EARLY YEARS

Prior to the 1830s, the means of transportation was only through steam power, because the laws
of electromagnetic induction, and consequently, electric motors and generators, were yet
to be discovered. Faraday demonstrated the principle of the electric motor as early as in 1820
through a wire rod carrying electric current and a magnet, but in 1831 he discovered the laws of
electromagnetic induction that enabled the development and demonstration of the electric motors
and generators essential for electric transportation. The history of EVs in those early years up to
its peak period in the early 1900s is summarized below:

• Pre-830-Steam-powered transportation

• 1831—Faraday’s law, and shortly thereafter, invention of DC motor

• 1834—Non-rechargeable battery-powered electric car used on a short track

• 1851—Non-rechargeable 19 mph electric car

• 1859—Development of lead storage battery

• 1874—Battery-powered carriage

• Early 1870s-Electricity produced by dynamo-generators

• 1885—Gasoline-powered tricycle car

• 1900—4200 automobiles sold:

• 40% steam powered

• 38% electric powered

• 22% gasoline powered

The specifications of some of the early EVs are given below:

• 1897—French Krieger Co. EV: weight, 2230 lb; top speed, 15 mph; range, 50
mi/charge

• 1900—French B.G.S. Co. EV: top speed, 40 mph; range, 100 mi/charge

• 1912—34,000 EVs registered; EVs outnumber gas-powered vehicles 2-to-1

• 1915—Woods EV: top speed, 40 mph; range, 100 mi/charge

• 1915—Lansden EV: weight, 2460 lb, top speed, 93 mi/charge, capacity, 1 ton payload

• 1920s—EVs disappear, and ICEVs become predominant

The factors that led to the disappearance of EV after its short period of success were as
follows:

1. Invention of starter motor in 1911 made gas vehicles easier to start.

2. Improvements in mass production of Henry T (gas-powered car) vehicles sold for

$260 in 1925, compared to $850 in 1909. EVs were more expensive.

3. Rural areas had limited access to electricity to charge batteries, whereas gasoline

could be sold in those areas.

1960s

Electric vehicles started to resurge in the 1960s, primarily due to environmental hazards
being caused by the emissions of ICEVs. The major ICEV manufacturers, General Motors
(GM) and Ford, became involved in EV research and development. General Motors started a $15
million program that culminated in the vehicles called Electrovair and Electrovan. The
components and specifications of two Electrovair vehicles (Electrovair I (1964) and Electrovair II
(1966) by GM) are given below.

Systems and characteristics:

Motor—three-phase induction motor, 115 hp, 13,000 rev/m

Battery—silver-zinc (Ag-Zn), 512 V, 680 lb

Motor drive—DC-to-AC inverter using a silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR)

Top speed—80 mi/h

Range—40 to 80 miles

Acceleration—0–60 mi/h in 15.6 s

Vehicle weight—3400 lb

The Electro air utilized the Chevy Corvair body and chassis. Among the positive features
was the acceleration performance that was comparable to the ICEV Corvair. The major
disadvantage of the vehicle was the silver-zinc (Ag-Zn) battery pack that was too expensive and
heavy, with a short cycle life and a long recharge time.

An additional factor in the 1960s that provided the impetus for EV development
included ―The Great Electric Car Raceǁ cross-country competition (3300 miles) between an
EV from Caltech and an EV from MIT in August 1968. The race generated great public
interest in EVs and provided an extensive road test of the EV Technology.

However, technology of the 1960s was not mature enough to produce a commercially viable EV.
1970s

The scenario turned in favor of EVs in the early 1970s, as gasoline prices increased
dramatically due to an energy crisis. The Arab oil embargo of 1973 increased demands for
alternate energy sources, which led to immense interest in EVs. It became highly desirable to
be less dependent on foreign oil as a nation. In 1975, 352 electric vans were delivered to the
U.S. Postal Service for testing. In 1976, Congress enacted Public Law 94–413, the Electric
and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development and Demonstration Act of 1976. This act
authorized a federal program to promote electric and hybrid vehicle technologies and to
demonstrate the commercial feasibility of EVs.

1980s AND 1990s

In the 1980s and the 1990s, there were tremendous developments of high-power, high-
frequency semiconductor switches, along with the microprocessor revolution, which led to
improved power converter design to drive the electric motors efficiently. Also in this period,
factors contributed to the development of magnetic bearings used in flywheel energy storage
systems, although these are not utilized in mainstream EV development projects. In the last 2
decades, legislative mandates pushed the cause for zero-emission vehicles. Legislation passed
by the California Air Resources Board in

1990 stated that by 1998 2% of vehicles should be zero-emission vehicles (ZEV) for
each automotive company selling more than 35,000 vehicles. The percentages were to
increase to 5% by 2001 and to 10% by 2003. The legislation provided a tremendous impetus to
develop EVs by the major automotive manufacturers. The legislation was relaxed somewhat
later due to practical limitations and the inability of the manufacturers to meet the
1998 and 2001 requirements.

The mandate now stands that 4% of all vehicles sold should be ZEV by 2003, and an
additional 6% of the sales must be made up of ZEVs and partial ZEVs, which would require
GM to sell about 14,000 EVs in California. Motivated by the pollution concern and potential
energy crisis, government agencies, federal laboratories, and the major automotive
manufacturers launched a number of initiatives to push for ZEVs. The partnership for
next-generation vehicles (PNGV) is such an initiative (established in

1993), which is a partnership of federal laboratories and automotive industries to promote and
develop electric and hybrid electric vehicles. The most recent initiative by the DOE and the
automotive industries is the Freedom CAR initiative.

The trends in EV developments in recent years can be attributed to the following:

• High level of activity exists at the major automotive manufacturers.

• New independent manufacturers bring vigor.

• New prototypes are even better.

• High levels of activity overseas exist.

• There are high levels of hybrid vehicle activity.

• A boom in individual ICEV to EV conversions is ongoing.

• The fuel cell shows great promise in solving the battery range problem. The
case studies of two GM EVs of the 1990s are given below:

1. GM Impact 3 (1993 completed):

a. Based on 1990 Impact displayed at the Los Angeles auto show b.

Two-passenger, two-door coupe, street legal and safe

c. Initially, 12 built for testing; 50 built by 1995 to be evaluated by 1000 potential

customers

d. System and characteristics:

 i. Motor—one, three-phase induction motor; 137 hp; 12,000 rev/m

ii. Battery pack—lead-acid (26), 12 V batteries connected in series (312 V),869 lb

iii. Motor drive—DC-to-AC inverter using insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs)

iv. Top speed—75 mph

v. Range—90 miles on highway

vi. Acceleration—0 to 60 miles in 8.5 s

vii. Vehicle weight—2900 lb

e. This vehicle was used as a test bed for mass production of EVs.

2. Saturn EVl

a. Commercially available electric vehicle made by GM in 1995.

b. Leased in California and Arizona for a total cost of about $30,000. c.

System and characteristics:

i. Motor—one, three-phase induction motor ii.

Battery pack—lead-acid batteries

iii. Motor drive—DC-to-AC inverter using IGBTs

iv. Top speed—75 mph

v. Range—90 miles on highway, 70 miles in city

vi. Acceleration—0 to 60 mi in 8.5 s

d. Power consumption:

i. 30 kW-h/100 mi in city, 25 kW-h/100 mi on highway

e. This vehicle was also used as a test bed for mass production of EVs.
Advantages of Electric Vehicle

• Environment-friendly: Electric vehicles do not use fuels for combustion and hence there is
no emission or exhaust of gasses. Vehicles using fossil fuels are large contributors to harmful
gas buildup in the environment so the use of an electric car can help contribute to a cleaner
atmosphere.
• Renewable energy source: Electric vehicles run on electricity that is renewable whereas
conventional cars work on the burning of fossil fuels that exhaust the fossil-fuel reserves on
earth.
• Cost-effective: Electricity is much cheaper than fuels like petrol and diesel which suffer a frequent
price hike. The recharging of batteries is cost-effective if solar power is used at home.
• Low maintenance: Electric vehicles have fewer moving parts so wear and tear is less as
compared to conventional auto parts. Repair work is also simple and less expensive relative to
combustion engines.
• Less noise and smoother motion: Electric vehicles give a much smoother driving
experience. The absence of rapidly moving parts makes them much quiet with low sound
generation.
• Government support: Governments in various countries have offered tax credits as an
incentive to encourage people to use electric vehicles as a go-green initiative.

Disadvantages of Electric Vehicle

• High initial cost: Electric vehicles are still very expensive and many consumers consider
them not as affordable as conventional vehicles.
• Charging station limitations: People who need to drive long distances are worried about
getting suitable charging stations midway which is not available everywhere.
• Recharging takes time: Unlike conventional cars that require a few minutes for refilling fuel,
recharging of the electric vehicle takes much more time which is generally a few hours.
• Limited choices: Presently there aren’t too many electric models of cars available to choose
from when it comes to the looks, designs, or customized versions.
 • Less driving range: The driving range of the electric vehicles is found to be less as compared
to conventional vehicles. Electric vehicles can be suitable for day-to-day travel but can be
problematic for a long-distance journey.

Applications of Electric Vehicles

• Consumer Electronics.
• Public Transportation.
• Aviation.
• Electricity Grid.
• Renewable Energy Storage.
• Military.
• Spaceflight.
• Wearable Technology.

TYPES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

There are four types of electric vehicles available:

• Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV): Fully powered by electricity. These are more efficient
compared to hybrid and plug-in hybrids.
• Hybrid Electric Vehicle:
o Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV): The vehicle uses both the internal combustion
(usually petrol) engine and the battery-powered motor power train. The petrol
engine is used both to drive and charge when the battery is empty. These vehicles
are not as efficient as fully electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles.
o Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV): Uses both an internal combustion
engine and a battery charged from an external socket (they have a plug). This
means the vehicle’s battery can be charged with electricity rather than the engine.
PHEVs are more efficient than HEVs but less efficient than BEVs.
 • Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV): Electric energy is produced from chemical energy.
For example, a hydrogen FCEV.

Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs)

BEVs are also known as All-Electric Vehicles (AEV). Electric Vehicles using BEV
technology run entirely on a battery-powered electric drive train. The electricity used to drive the
vehicle is stored in a large battery pack which can be charged by plugging into the electricity
grid. The charged battery pack then provides power to one or more electric motors to run the
electric car. To find out more about BEVs, click below.

Main Components of BEV:

Electric motor, Inverter, Battery, Control Module, Drive train

Working Principles of BEV:

The power for the electric motor is converted from the DC Battery to AC. As the
accelerator is pressed, a signal is sent to the controller. The controller adjusts the speed of the
vehicle by changing the frequency of the AC power from the inverter to the motor. The motor
then connects and leads to the turning of wheels through a cog. If the brakes are pressed, or the
electric car is decelerating, the motor becomes an alternator and produces power, which is sent
back to the battery

Examples of BEV:

MG ZS, TATA Nexon, TATA Tigor, Mahindra E20 plus, Hyundai Kona, Mahindra Verito

Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV):

HEVs are also known as series hybrid or parallel hybrid. HEVs have both engine and
electric motor. The engine gets energy from fuel, and the motor gets electricity from batteries.
The transmission is rotated simultaneously by both engine and electric motor. This then drives
the wheels. To find out more about HEVs, click below.
Main Components of HEV:

Engine, Electric motor, Battery pack with controller & inverter, Fuel tank, Control module.

Working Principles of HEV:

The fuel tank supplies energy to the engine like a regular car. The batteries run on an
electric motor. Both the engine and electric motor can turn the transmission at the same time.

Examples of HEV:

Toyota Prius, Peugeot 508 RXH HYbrid4, Ford Escape Hybrid, and Ford Fusion Hybrid.

Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV):

The PHEVs are also known as series hybrids. They have both engine and a motor. You
can choose among the fuels, conventional fuel (such as petrol) or alternative fuel (such as bio-
diesel). It can also be powered by a rechargeable battery pack. The battery can be charged
externally. To find out more about PHEVs, click below.

PHEVs can run in at least 2 modes:

• All-electric Mode, in which the motor and battery provide all the car’s energy
• Hybrid Mode, in which both electricity and petrol/diesel are employed
Main Components of PHEV:

Electric motor, Engine, Inverter, Battery, Fuel tank, Control module, Battery Charger (if onboard
model)

Working Principles of PHEV:

PHEVs start-up in all-electric mode and make use of electricity until their battery pack is
depleted. Once the battery gets drained, the engine takes over, and the vehicle operates as a
conventional, non-plug-in hybrid. PHEVs can be charged by plugging into an outside electric
power source, engine, or regenerative braking. When brakes are applied, the electric motor acts
as a generator, using the energy to charge the battery. The engine’s power is supplemented by the
electric motor; as a result, smaller engines can be used, increasing the car’s fuel efficiency
without compromising performance.

Examples of PHEV:

Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid, BMW 330e, Porsche Panamera S E-hybrid, Chevy Volt,
Chrysler Pacifica, Ford C-Max Energi, Mercedes C350e, Mercedes S550e, Mercedes GLE550e,
Mini Cooper SE Countryman, Ford Fusion Energi, Audi A3 E-Tron, BMW i8, BMW X5
xdrive40e, Fiat 500e, Hyundai Sonata, Kia Optima, Volvo XC90 T8.
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV):

FCEVs are also known as Zero-Emission Vehicles. They employ ‘fuel cell technology’ to
generate the electricity required to run the vehicle. The chemical energy of the fuel is converted
directly into electric energy. To find out more about FCEVs, click below.

Main Components of FCEV:

Electric motor, Fuel-cell stack, Hydrogen storage tank, battery with converter and controller

Working Principles of FCEV:

The FCEV generates the electricity required to run this vehicle on the vehicle itself.

Examples of FCEV:

Toyota Mirai, River simple Rasa, Hyundai Tucson FCEV, Honda Clarity Fuel Cell, Hyundai
Nexo.