GET 201

Applied Electricity I

Abdulwaheed MUSA, PhD

Under Graduate,
Harmattan Semester 2018/2019
Course Outline: Section A
 Electric Fields
 Charges
 Magnetic Fields
 B – H Curves
 Kirchoff’s laws
 Superposition theorem
 Thevenin theorems
 Norton theorems
 Reciprocity
 RL, RC, RLC Circuits
Today’s Goal

 Electric Fields
 Charges
Introduction
SI Unit
 As engineers, we deal with measurable quantities. Our measurement,
however, must be communicated in a standard language that virtually all
professionals can understand, irrespective of the country where the
measurement is conducted. Such an international measurement language is
the International System of Units or Systeme Internationale (SI).

 The SI unit is based on the units for the six fundamental dimensions. Other
dimensions are regarded as secondary because they are based and expressed in
terms of the six fundamental dimensions.
Dimension Unit Symbol

Length Meter m

Mass Kilogram Kg

Time second s

Electric Current ampere A

Temperature kelvin K

Amount of substance mole mol

 Introduction
Charge: is an electrical property of the atomic particles measured in coulombs (C).
 The Coulomb is defined as the quantity of electricity which flows past a given point in an
electric circuit when a current of one ampere is maintained for one second. In other words,
one coulomb is one ampere second. (1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 6.24 × 1018 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖. 𝑒. 1/
(1.602 × 10−19 ))
 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒔 ; 𝑸 = 𝑰𝒕 ; where I is the current (A) and t is the time (s).

Example: If a current of 5A flows for 2 minutes, find the quantity of electricity transferred.

Force: The newton is defined as the force which, when applied to a mass of one kilogram,
gives it an acceleration of one metre per seconds squared.
 Force in newton; F = ma
𝟐
 Gravitational force or weight; F = mg ; where 𝒈 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏𝒎/𝒔

Example: A mass of 5000g is accelerated at 2 𝑚/𝑠 2 by a force. Determine the force needed.

Work: The joule is defined as the work done or energy transferred when a force of one
newton is exerted through a distance of one metre in the direction of the force
 Work done on a body, in joules; W = Fs
 Introduction
Power:: Power is defined as the rate of doing work or transferring energy. The unit of power is
the watt (W) where one watt is one joule per second.
 Power in watt; P = W/t ; where W is the work done or energy transferred, in joules, and t is
the time, in seconds.
 Energy in joule; W = Pt

Example: A portable machine requires a force of 200N to move it. How much work is done if
the machine is moved 200m and what average power is utilized if the movement takes 25s?
Term: A mass of 500kg is raised to a height of 6m in 30s. Find (a) the work done and (b) the
power developed.

Electrical potential and e.m.f.: The unit of electric potential is the volt (v), where one volt is
one joule per coulomb. One Volt is defined as the difference in potential between two points in
a conductor which, when carrying a current of one ampere, dissipates a power of one watt, i.e.
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 = =
𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
= =
𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠
A change in electric potential between two points in an electric circuit is called a potential
difference.
 Introduction
The electromotive force (e.m.f.) provided by a source of energy such as a battery or a
generator is measured in volts.

Resistance and conductance: One ohm is one volt per ampere. It is defined as the resistance
between two points in a conductor when a constant electric potential of one volt applied at the
two points produces a current flow of one ampere in the conductor.
𝑽
Resistance in ohms; 𝑹 = 𝑰
where V is the potential difference across the two points, in volts, and I is the current flowing
between the two points, in amperes.
 The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance and is measured in siemens (S).
1
Conductance, in siemens; 𝐺 = 𝑅
Example: Find the conductance of a conductor of resistance: (a.) 10Ω (b.) 5kΩ (c.) 100mΩ

Electrical power and energy: When a direct current of I amperes is flowing in an electric
circuit and the voltage across the circuit is V volts; then
Power in watts; P = VI
 Introduction
Electric energy = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
Although the unit of energy is the joules, when dealing with large amounts of energy, the
unit used is the Kilowatt-hour (kWh) where;
1 kWh = 1000 watt-hour
= 1000 x 3600 watt seconds or joules
= 3 600 000 J
Examples: (a) A source e.m.f of 5V supplies a current of 3A for 10minutes. How much
energy is provided in this time?
(b) An electric heater consumes 1.8 MJ when connected to a 250V supply for
30 minutes. Find the power rating of the heater and the current taken from the supply.

An electrical/electronic system is a group of components connected together to

perform a desired function. Example is a simple public address system, where a
microphone is used to collect acoustic energy in the form of sound pressure waves and
converts this to electrical energy in the form of small voltages and currents; the signal from
the microphone is then amplified by means of an electronic circuit containing
transistors/integrated circuit before it is applied to the loudspeaker.
 Electric Fields
The space surrounding a charge can be investigated using a small charged body. This is similar to
that applied to the magnetic field surrounding a current-carrying conductor. However, in this case
the charged body is either attracted or repelled by the charge under investigation. The space in which
this effect can be observed is termed the electric field of the charge and the force on the charged
body is the electric force.
The lines of force can be traced out and they appear to have certain properties:
1. In an electric field, each line of force emanates from or terminates in a charge. The conventional
direction is from the positive charge to the negative charge.
2. The direction of the line is that of the force experienced by a positive charge placed at a point in
the field, assuming that the search charge has no effect on the field which it is being used to
investigate.
3. The lines of force never intersect since the resultant force at any point in the field can have only
one direction.
The force of attraction or of repulsion acts directly between two adjacent charges. All points on
the surface of a conductor may be assumed to be at equipotential (same potential), and the lines of
force radiate out from equipotential surfaces at right angles. The simplest case is that of the isolated
spherical charge shown in Fig. 1. However, most electric fields exist between two conductors. The
two most important arrangements are those involving parallel plates (as in a simple capacitor) and
concentric cylinders (as in a television aerial cable). The resulting fields are shown in Fig. 2.
 Electric Fields
Fig. 1: Electric field about an isolated spherical charge

Fig. 2: Electric fields between oppositely charged surfaces. (a) Parallel plates; (b)
concentric cylinders (cable)

It should not be overlooked that the space between the conductors needs to be filled with
an insulator, otherwise the charges would move towards one another and therefore be
dissipated. The insulant is called a dielectric.
 Electric Field Strength and Electric Flux Density
 We can investigate an electric field by observing its effect on a charge. In the SI
method of measurement this should be a unit charge, i.e. a coulomb. In practice this is
such a large charge that it would disrupt the field being investigated.
 The magnitude of the force experienced by this unit charge at any point in a field is
termed the electric field strength at that point (also known as electric stress). It can
be measured in newtons per unit charge and represented by the symbol E. (Since E
can also represent e.m.f., we use a bold type for E when representing electric field
strength and later we will meet D representing electric flux density.)
 The most simple field arrangement which we can investigate is that between parallel
charged plates as shown in Fig. 3. Let us suppose that the plates are very large and that
the distance between them is very small. By doing this, we can ignore any fringing
effects of the type shown in Fig. 2 and assume that all the field exists between the
plates. Let us also assume that there is free space between the plates.

Fig. 3: A parallel-plate capacitor

 Electric Field Strength and Electric Flux Density
 There is a potential difference of V volts between the plates. Therefore, the work in
transferring 1 C of charge between the plates is V joules. But work is the product of
force and distance, and in this case the distance is d metres. Therefore the force
experienced by the charge is the electric field strength E given by
𝑉
𝐸= 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒
𝑑
 The total electric effect of a system as described by the lines of electric force is
termed the electric flux linking the system. Flux is measured in the same units as
electric charge, hence a flux of Q coulombs is created by a charge of Q coulombs.
 The electric flux density is the measure of the electric flux passing at right angles
through unit area, i.e. an area of 1𝑚2 . It follows that if the area of the plates in the
capacitor of Fig. 3 is A then the electric flux density D is given by;
𝑄
𝐷= 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒
𝐴
From above two expressions, we have;
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐷 𝑄 𝑉 𝑄 𝑑 𝐶𝑑
= = ÷ = × =
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐸 𝐴 𝑑 𝑉 𝐴 𝐴
 Electric Field Strength and Electric Flux Density
 In electrostatics, the ratio of the electric flux density in a vacuum to the electric field
strength is termed the permittivity of free space and is represented by 𝜖0 . Hence,
Cd 𝜖0 𝐴
𝜖0 = or C= 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠
A 𝑑
Permittivity of free space Symbol: 𝝐𝟎 Unit: farad per metre (F/m)
 The value of 𝝐𝟎 can be determined experimentally by charging a capacitor, of known
dimensions and with vacuum dielectric, to a p.d. of V volts and then discharging it
through a ballistic galvanometer having a known ballistic constant k coulombs per unit
deflection. If the deflection is θ divisions,
𝑸 = 𝑪𝑽 = 𝒌𝜽
𝒅 𝒌𝜽 𝒅
∴ 𝝐𝟎 = 𝐂 ∙ = ∙
𝑨 𝑽 𝑨
 From carefully conducted tests it has been found that the value of 𝝐𝟎 is
8.85 × 10−12 𝐹/𝑚.
 Hence the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor with vacuum or air dielectric is given
by;
𝟖. 𝟖𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 [𝑭/𝒎] × 𝑨[𝒎𝟐 ]
𝑪= 𝒇𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒔
𝒅[𝒎]
 Relative Permittivity
 The ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor having a given material as dielectric to
the capacitance of that capacitor with vacuum (or air) dielectric is termed the relative
permittivity of that material (𝝐𝒓 ). See Table 1 for values of the relative permittivity of
some important insulating materials. Note that some of them vary with frequency.
Relative Permittivity Symbol: 𝝐𝒓 Unit: none
 From above expression, it follows that if the space between the metal plates of the
capacitor in Fig. 4 is filled with a dielectric having a relative permittivity 𝝐𝒓 ,
𝜖0 𝜖𝑟 𝐴
Capacitance; 𝐶 = 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠
𝑑
𝟖. 𝟖𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 [𝑭/𝒎] × 𝝐𝒓 × 𝑨[𝒎𝟐 ]
= 𝒇𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒔
𝒅[𝒎]

Fig. 4: A parallel-plate capacitor with a glass dielectric

 Relative Permittivity

Table 1 : Important insulating materials

And charge due to a p.d. of V volts is;

𝜖0 𝜖𝑟 𝐴𝑉
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠
𝑑
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐷 𝑄 𝑉 𝑄𝑑
∴ = = ÷ = = 𝜖0 𝜖𝑟
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐸 𝐴 𝑑 𝑉𝐴
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝝐𝟎 𝝐𝒓 = 𝝐
where 𝝐 is the absolute permittivity
𝐶[𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠] × 𝑑[𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠]
∴ 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜖 = 𝜖0 𝜖𝑟 =
𝐴[𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 2 ]
𝐶𝑑
= 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 (𝐅/𝐦)
𝐴
 Capacitance of a multi-plate capacitor
Suppose a capacitor to be made up of n parallel plates, alternate plates being connected
together as in Fig. 5. Let A = area of one side of each plate in square metres, d = thickness
of dielectric in metres and 𝜖𝑟 = relative permittivity of the dielectric
 Figure 5 shows a capacitor with seven plates, four being connected to A and three to
B. It will be seen that each side of the three plates connected to B is in contact with the
dielectric, whereas only one side of each of the outer plates is in contact with it.
Consequently, the useful surface area of each set of plates is 6A square metres. For n
plates, the useful area of each set is (n − 1)A square metres.

Fig. 5: Multi-plate capacitor

𝝐𝟎 𝝐𝒓 𝒏 − 𝟏 𝑨 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝝐𝒓 𝒏 − 𝟏 𝑨
𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = = 𝒇𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒔
𝒅 𝒅
Example: A capacitor is made with seven metal plates connected as in Fig 5 and separated by
sheets of mica having a thickness of 0.3 mm and a relative permittivity of 6. The area of one side of
each plate is 500 𝑐𝑚2 . Calculate the capacitance in microfarads.
 Composite dielectric capacitors
 Suppose the space between metal plates M and N to be filled by dielectrics 1 and 2 of thickness
𝑑1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑2 metres respectively, as shown in Fig. 6(a). Let Q = charge in coulombs due to p.d. of
V volts and A = area of each dielectric in square metres, then D = Q/A
which is the electric flux density, in coulombs per metre squared, in A and B.

Fig. 6: Parallel-plate capacitor with two dielectrics

Let 𝑬𝟏 and 𝑬𝟐 = electric field strengths in 1 and 2 respectively; then if the relative permittivities of 1
and 2 are 𝜖1 and 𝜖2 respectively, electric field strength in A is
𝑫 𝑸 𝑫 𝑸
𝑬𝟏 = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑖𝑠; 𝑬𝟐 = =
𝝐𝟏 𝝐𝟎 𝝐𝟏 𝝐𝟎 𝑨 𝝐𝟐 𝝐𝟎 𝝐𝟐 𝝐𝟎 𝑨
𝑬𝟏 𝝐𝟐
𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 =
𝑬𝟐 𝝐𝟏
 Composite dielectric capacitors
i.e. for dielectrics having the same cross-sectional area in series, the electric field strengths (or
potential gradients) are inversely proportional to their relative permittivities.

Potential drop in a dielectric is electric field strength × thickness

Therefore p.d. between plate M and the boundary surface L between 1 and 2 is 𝐸1 𝑑1 . Hence all
points on surface L are at the same potential, i.e. L is an equipotential surface and is at right angles to the
direction of the electric field strength. It follows that if a very thin metal foil were inserted between 1
and 2, it would not alter the electric field in the dielectrics. Hence the latter may be regarded as
equivalent to two capacitances, 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 , connected in series as in Fig. 6 (b), where
𝝐𝟏 𝝐𝟎 𝑨 𝝐𝟐 𝝐𝟎 𝑨
𝑪𝟏 = 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑪𝟐 =
𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
And total capacitance between plates M and N is;
𝑪𝟏 +𝑪𝟐
Example: A capacitor consists of two metal plates, each 400 × 400 mm, spaced 6mm
apart. The space between the metal plates is filled with a glass plate 5 mm thick and a layer
of paper 1 mm thick. The relative permittivities of the glass and paper are 8 and 2
respectively. Calculate (a) the capacitance, neglecting any fringing flux, and
(b) the electric field strength in each dielectric in kilovolts per millimetre due to a p.d. of
10 kV between the metal plates.
 Charging and Discharging Currents
Suppose C in Fig. 7 represents a capacitor of, say, 30 μF connected in series with a centre-zero
microammeter A across a slider S and one end of a resistor R. A battery B is connected across R. If S
is moved at a uniform speed along R, the p.d. applied to C, indicated by voltmeter V, increases
uniformly from 0 to V volts, as shown by line OD in Fig. 8.
If C is the capacitance in farads and if the p.d. across C increases uniformly from 0 to V volts in 𝑡1
seconds
𝑄 [𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠]
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑖1 =
𝑡1 [𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠]
𝐶𝑉
= 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑡1
i.e. charging current in amperes is equal to rate of change of charge in coulombs per second and is
C [farads] × rate of change of p.d. in volts per second
Since the p.d. across C increases at a uniform rate, the charging current, 𝑖1 , remains constant and is
represented by the dotted line LM in Fig. 8.

Fig. 7: Charging and discharging of a capacitor Fig. 8: Voltage and current during C&D of a Cap.
 Charging and Discharging Currents
Suppose the p.d. across C to be maintained constant at V volts during the next 𝑡2 seconds.
Since the rate of change of p.d. is now zero, the current (apart from a slight leakage
current) is zero and is represented by the dotted line NP. If the p.d. across C is then
reduced to zero at a uniform rate by moving slider S backwards, the microammeter
indicates a current 𝑖3 flowing in the reverse direction, represented by the dotted line QT in
Fig. 8. If 𝑡3 is the time in seconds for the p.d. to be reduced from V volts to zero, then
𝑄 = −𝑖3 𝑡3 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠
∴ 𝑖3 = −𝑄/𝑡3 = −𝐶 × 𝑉/𝑡3 amperes
i.e. discharge current in amperes is equal to rate of change of charge in coulombs per
second and is
C [farads] × rate of change of p.d. in volts per second
Since 𝑄 = 𝑖1 𝑡1 = −𝑖3 𝑡3 (assuming negligible leakage current through C), areas of
rectangles OLMN and PQTF are therefore equal.
In practice, it is seldom possible to vary the p.d. across a capacitor at a constant rate, so let
us consider the general case of the p.d. across a capacitor of C farads being increased by dv
volts in dt seconds.
 Charging and Discharging Currents
 If the corresponding increase of charge is dq coulombs
𝑑𝑞 = 𝐶 ∙ 𝑑𝑣
If the charging current at that instant is i amperes
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑖 ∙ 𝑑𝑡
∴ 𝑖 ∙ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶 ∙ 𝑑𝑣
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 = 𝐶 ∙ 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡
𝑖 = 𝐶 × 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝. 𝑑.
If the capacitor is being discharged and if the p.d. falls by dv volts in dt seconds, the
discharge current is given by
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑣
𝑖= 𝑜𝑟 𝑖=𝐶∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Since dv is now negative, the current is also negative.

 Growth and Decay
 The curves of the voltage across a capacitor during charging and discharging from the
readings on a voltmeter connected across the capacitor have been derived. How the
curves can be derived graphically from the values of the capacitance, the resistance and
the applied voltage will now be considered. At the instant when S is closed on position,
there is no p.d. across C. Consequently the whole of the voltage is applied across R and
the initial value of the charging current = I = V/R.
 The growth of the p.d. across C is represented by the curve in Fig. 9. Suppose v to be
the p.d. across C and i to be the charging current t seconds after S is put over to
position a. The corresponding p.d. across R = V − v, where V is the terminal voltage
of the battery. Hence
𝑖𝑅 = 𝑉 − 𝑣
𝑉 −𝑣
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 =
𝑅
If this current remained constant until the capacitor was fully charged, and if the time taken
was x seconds, the corresponding quantity of electricity is
𝑉 −𝑣
𝑖𝑥 = × 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠
𝑅
With a constant charging current, the p.d. across C would have increased uniformly up to
V volts, as represented by the tangent LM drawn to the curve at L.
 Growth and Decay
But the charge added to the capacitor also equals increase of p.d. × C which is
𝑉−𝑣 ×𝐶
𝑉−𝑣
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 × 𝑥 = 𝐶(𝑉 − 𝑣)
𝑅
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑅 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑇, 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑇 = 𝐶𝑅 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
The construction of the curve representing the growth of the p.d. across a capacitor is
therefore similar to that for the growth of current in an inductive circuit. Thus, OA in Fig.
10 represents the battery voltage V, and AB the time constant T. Join OB, and from a
point D fairly near the origin draw DE = T seconds and draw EF perpendicularly.
Join DF, etc. Draw a curve such that OB, DF, etc. are tangents to it.

From above expression it is evident that the instantaneous value of the charging current is
proportional to (V − v), namely the vertical distance between the curve and the horizontal
line PQ in Fig. 9. Hence the shape of the curve representing the charging current is the
inverse of that of the p.d. across the capacitor and is the same for both charging and
discharging currents (assuming the resistance to be the same). Its construction is illustrated
by the following example.
 Growth and Decay

Fig. 9: Growth of p.d. across a capacitor Fig. 10: Growth of p.d. across a capacitor
in series with a resistor. in series with a resistor.

Example: A 20 μ F capacitor is charged to a p.d. of 400 V and then discharged through a

100 000 Ω resistor. Derive a curve representing the discharge current.
 Analysis of Growth and Decay
Suppose the p.d. across capacitor C in Fig. 11, t seconds after S is switched over to position a, to be v
volts, and the corresponding charging current to be i amperes, as indicated in Fig. 13. Also, suppose
the p.d. to increase from v to (v + dv) volts in dt seconds, then, from previous expression,
𝑑𝑣
𝑖=𝐶
𝑑𝑡

Fig. 11: Capacitor charged and discharged Fig. 12: Charging and discharging currents
through a resistor and p.d.s

Fig. 13: Variation of current and p.d. during charging

 Analysis of Growth and Decay
𝑑𝑣
And corresponding p.d. across R is: 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅𝐶 ∙
𝑑𝑡
But 𝑉 = 𝑝. 𝑑. 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐶 + 𝑝. 𝑑. 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑅
𝑑𝑣
𝑉 = 𝑣 + 𝑅𝐶 ∙
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
∴ 𝑉 − 𝑣 = 𝑅𝐶 ∙
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑣
𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 =
𝑅𝐶 𝑉−𝑣
𝑡
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒: = − ln 𝑉 − 𝑣 + 𝐴
𝑅𝐶
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 =, 𝑣 = 0,
∴
𝐴 = 𝑖𝑛 𝑉
𝑡 𝑉
𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡; = ln
𝑅𝐶 𝑉−𝑣
𝑉 𝑡
∴ = 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
𝑉−𝑣
𝑡
−
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 =𝑉 1−𝑒 𝑅𝐶 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 −
𝑡
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑖=𝐶 ∙ = 𝐶𝑉 ∙ 1−𝑒 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑉 −𝑡
∴ 𝑖= 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
𝑅
 Analysis of Growth and Decay
At the instant of switching on, t = 0 and 𝑒 −0 = 1,
𝑉
∴ 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = = 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝐼
𝑅
This result is really obvious from the fact that at the instant of switching on there is no charge on C
and therefore no p.d. across it. Consequently the whole of the applied voltage must momentarily be
absorbed by R.
𝑉
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑠;
𝑅
𝑡
−𝑅𝐶
𝑖=𝐼𝑒
If the p.d. across the capacitor continued increasing at the initial rate, it would be represented by OA,
the tangent drawn to the initial part of the curve. If T is the time constant, namely the time required
for the p.d. across C to increase from zero to its final value if it continued increasing at its initial rate,
then;
𝑉
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝. 𝑑. = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑇

But t follows from equation that at the instant of closing the switch on position a 𝒗 = 𝟎, then
𝒅𝒗
𝑽 = 𝑹𝑪
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒗 𝑽
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒑. 𝒅. 𝒊𝒔; =
𝒅𝒕 𝑹𝑪
𝑽 𝑽
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒘𝒆 𝒉𝒂𝒗𝒆; ∴ = ; ∴ 𝑻 = 𝑹𝑪 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔
𝑻 𝑹𝑪
𝒕 𝒕
− −
𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒘𝒆 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒓𝒆𝒘𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒂𝒔; 𝒗 = 𝑽 𝟏 − 𝒆 𝑻 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊 = 𝑰𝒆 𝑻
 Discharge of a capacitor through a resistor
Having charged capacitor C in Fig. 11 to a p.d. of V volts, let us now move switch S over
to position b and thereby discharge the capacitor through R. The pointer of microammeter
A is immediately deflected to a maximum value in the negative direction, and then the
readings on both the microammeter and the voltmeter (Fig. 11) decrease to zero as
indicated in Fig. 14.

Fig. 14: Variation of current and p.d. during discharge.

Suppose the p.d. across C to be v volts t seconds after S has been moved to position b,
𝒗
and the corresponding current to be i amperes, as in Fig. 14, then 𝒊 = −
𝑹
The negative sign indicates that the direction of the discharge current is the reverse of that
of the charging current.
𝒅𝒗
𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝. 𝑑. 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐶 𝑡𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠, ∴ 𝒊 = 𝑪 ∙
𝒅𝒕
 Discharge of a capacitor through a resistor
Since dv is now negative, i must also be negative, as already noted. Equating above two equation, we have;
𝑣 𝑑𝑣
− =𝐶 ∙
𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑣
𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡, = −
𝑅𝐶 𝑣
𝑡
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒; = − ln 𝑣 + 𝐴
𝑅𝐶
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 = 𝑉, 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐴 = ln 𝑉 .
𝑡
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒; = ln 𝑉/𝑣
𝑅𝐶
𝑉 𝑡
𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡; = 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
𝑣
𝑡 𝑡
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 = 𝑉𝑒 −𝑇
𝑣 𝑉 −𝑡 −
𝑡
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜; 𝑖=− =− 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 = −𝐼𝑒 𝑇
𝑅 𝑅
𝑡
−
∴ −𝐼 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
𝑉
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = .
𝑅

Example: An 8𝜇𝐹 capacitor is connected in series with a 0.5MΩ resistor across a 200 V d.c. supply. Calculate: (a)
the time constant; (b) the initial charging current; (c) the time taken for the p.d. across the capacitor to grow to
160 V; (d) the current and the p.d. across the capacitor 4.0 s after it is connected to the supply.
 Lecture 2
Magnetic Fields
B – H Curves
 Magnetic Field
The first known recognition of magnetism was made by the Chinese in 2637 BC. An
emperor, Hoang-ti, is reputed to have had a chariot with a figurehead which pointed
South no matter in what direction the chariot was moving. This arrangement was
developed into the compass and it is even suggested that it was King Solomon who
invented it. The ore from which the magnet was produced was called magnesian stone,
hence the name magnet.
Nowadays we make compasses from steel, but the action remains the same. The pointer
of a compass is called a permanent magnet because it always retains its peculiar
properties, i.e. if a permanent magnet is suspended in a horizontal plane, as shown in
Fig. 15, it takes up a position such that one end points to the earth’s North Pole. That
end is said to be the north-seeking end of the magnet while the other end is called the
south-seeking end. These are called the North (or N) and South (or S) poles respectively
of the magnet.

Fig. 15: A suspended permanent magnet

 Magnetic Field
Let us place a permanent magnet on a table, cover it over with a sheet of smooth
cardboard and sprinkle steel filings uniformly over the sheet. Slight tapping of the latter
causes the filings to set themselves in curved chains between the poles, as shown in Fig.
16. The shape and density of these chains enable one to form a mental picture of the
magnetic condition of the space or ‘field’ around a bar magnet and lead to the idea of
lines of magnetic flux.
It should be noted, however, that these lines of magnetic flux have no physical
existence; they are imaginary and were introduced by Michael Faraday as a means of
visualizing the distribution and density of a magnetic field. It is important to realize that
the magnetic flux permeates the whole of the space occupied by that flux. This
compares with the electric field lines introduced in previous topic.

Fig. 15: A suspended permanent

Fig. 16: Use of steel filings for determining distribution of magnetic field
 Direction of Magnetic field
The direction of a magnetic field is taken as that in which the N pole of a magnet points
when the latter is suspended in the field. Thus, if a bar magnet rests on a table and four
compass needles are placed in positions indicated in Fig. 17, it is found that the needles
take up positions such that their axes coincide with the corresponding chain of filings (Fig.
16) and their N poles are all pointing along the dotted line from the N pole of the magnet
to its S pole. The lines of magnetic flux are assumed to pass through the magnet, emerge
from the N pole and return to the S pole.

Fig. 17: Use of compass needles for determining direction of magnetic field.
 Characteristics of lines of magnetic flux
In spite of the fact that lines of magnetic flux have no physical existence, they do form a very
convenient and useful basis for explaining various magnetic effects and for calculating their
magnitudes. For this purpose, lines of magnetic flux are assumed to have the following
properties:
1. The direction of a line of magnetic flux at any point in a non-magnetic medium, such as air, is that of the
north-seeking pole of a compass needle placed at that point.
2. Each line of magnetic flux forms a closed loop, as shown by the dotted lines in Figs 18 and 19.
This means that a line of flux emerging from any point at the N-pole end of a magnet
passes through the surrounding space back to the S-pole end and is then assumed to
continue through the magnet to the point at which it emerged at the N-pole end.
3. Lines of magnetic flux never intersect. This follows that if a compass needle is placed in a
magnetic field, its N pole will point in one direction only i.e. the direction of the magnetic
flux at that point.
4. Lines of magnetic flux are like stretched elastic cords, always trying to shorten themselves. This effect
can be demonstrated by suspending two permanent magnets, A and B, parallel to each
other, with their poles arranged as in Fig. 18. The distribution of the resultant magnetic
field is indicated by the dotted lines. The lines of magnetic flux passing between A and B
behave as if they were in tension, trying to shorten themselves and thereby causing the
magnets to be attracted towards each other. In other words, unlike poles attract each other.
5. Lines of magnetic flux which are parallel and in the same direction repel one another. This effect can
be demonstrated by suspending the two permanent magnets, A and B, with their N poles
pointing in the same direction, as in Fig. 19. It will be seen that in the space between A and
B the lines of flux are practically parallel and are in the same direction. These flux lines
behave as if they exerted a lateral pressure on one another, thereby causing magnets A and
B to repel each other. Hence like poles repel each other.
Characteristics of lines of magnetic flux

Fig. 18: Attraction between magnets

Fig. 19: Repulsion between magnets

 Magnetic field due to an electric current
When a conductor carries an electric current, a magnetic field is produced around that
conductor – a phenomenon discovered by Oersted at Copenhagen in 1820. He found that
when a wire carrying an electric current was placed above a magnetic needle (Fig. 20) and in line
with the normal direction of the latter, the needle was deflected clockwise or anticlockwise,
depending upon the direction of the current. Thus it is found that if we look along the
conductor and if the current is flowing away from us, as shown by the cross inside the
conductor in Fig. 21, the magnetic field has a clockwise direction and the lines of magnetic flux
can be represented by concentric circles around the wire.
We should note the interesting convention for showing the direction of current flow in a
conductor. In Fig. 22, we have a conductor in which we have drawn an arrow indicating the
direction of conventional current flow. However, if we observe the conductor end on, the
current would be flowing either towards us or away from us. If the current is flowing towards
us, we indicate this by a dot equivalent to the approaching point of the arrow, and if the current
is flowing away then it is represented by a cross equivalent to the departing tail feathers of the
arrow.

Fig. 20: Oersted’s experiment Fig. 21: Magnetic flux due to Fig. 22: Current conventions
Current in a straight conductor
 Magnetic field due to an electric current

Fig. 23: Right-hand screw rule

A convenient method of representing the relationship between the direction of a current and
that of its magnetic field is to place a corkscrew or a woodscrew (Fig. 23) alongside the
conductor carrying the current. In order that the screw may travel in the same direction as the
current, namely towards the right in Fig. 23, it has to be turned clockwise when viewed from
the left-hand side. Similarly, the direction of the magnetic field, viewed from the same side, is
clockwise around the conductor, as indicated by the curved arrow F.
An alternative method of deriving this relationship is to grip the conductor with the right hand,
with the thumb outstretched parallel to the conductor and pointing in the direction of the
current; the fingers then point in the direction of the magnetic flux around the conductor.
 Magnetic field of a solenoid
If a coil is wound on a steel rod, as in Fig. 24, and connected to a battery, the steel becomes
magnetized and behaves like a permanent magnet. The magnetic field of the electromagnet is
represented by the dotted lines and its direction by the arrowheads.
The direction of the magnetic field produced by a current in a solenoid may be deduced by
applying either the screw or the grip rule. If the axis of the screw is placed along that of the
solenoid and if the screw is turned in the direction of the current, it travels in the direction of
the magnetic field inside the solenoid, namely towards the right in Fig. 24.
The grip rule can be expressed thus: if the solenoid is gripped with the right hand, with the
fingers pointing in the direction of the current, i.e. conventional current, then the thumb
outstretched parallel to the axis of the solenoid points in the direction of the magnetic field
inside the solenoid.

Fig. 24: Solenoid with a steel core

 Force on a current-carrying conductor

Fig. 25: Force on conductor carrying Fig. 26: Direction of force on conductor in Fig. 25
current across a magnetic field

In magnetic field due to an electric current it was shown that a conductor carrying a current
can produce a force on a magnet situated in the vicinity of the conductor. By Newton’s 3rd law
of motion (i.e. to every force there must be an equal and opposite force), it follows that the
magnet must exert an equal force on the conductor. A way of demonstrating this effect is to
take a copper wire (2 mm diameter) and bend it into a rectangular loop as represented by BC in
Fig. 25. The two tapered ends of the loop dip into mercury contained in cups, one directly
above the other, the cups being attached to metal rods P and Q carried by a wooden upright
rod D. A current of about 5 A is passed through the loop and the N pole of a permanent
magnet NS is moved towards B. If the current in this wire is flowing downwards as indicated
by the arrow (Fig. 25), it is found that the loop, when viewed from above, turns anticlockwise
(Fig. 26). If the magnet is reversed and again brought up to B, the loop turns clockwise.
 Force on a current-carrying conductor
If the magnet is placed on the other side of the loop, the latter turns clockwise when the N pole of
the magnet is moved near to C, and anticlockwise when the magnet is reversed. It is important to
note that the action did not come from two pieces of magnetized steel. By means of the experiment
which had only one piece of steel, we can be certain that the action arose from the current-carrying
conductor.
We can introduce extra steel components in an experiment to explain the effects which we have
noted. A suitable experimental apparatus is shown in elevation and plan in Fig. 27. Two permanent
magnets NS rest on a sheet of paper or glass G, and steel pole-pieces P are added to increase the
area of the magnetic field in the gap between them. Midway between the pole-pieces is a wire W
passing vertically downwards through glass G and connected through a switch to a 6 V battery
capable of giving a very large current for a short time.

Fig. 27: Flux distribution with and without current

 Force on a current-carrying conductor
With the switch open, steel filings are sprinkled over G and the latter is gently
tapped. The filings in the space between PP take up the distribution shown in Fig.
27(b). If the switch is closed momentarily, the filings rearrange themselves as in
Fig. 27(c). It will be seen that the lines of magnetic flux have been so distorted
that they partially surround the wire. The lines of flux try to return to the shortest
paths between PP, thereby exerting a force F urging the conductor out of the way.
It has already been shown in magnetic field due to an electric current that a wire
W carrying a current downwards in Fig. 27(a) produces a magnetic field as shown
in Fig. 21. If this field is compared with that of Fig. 27(b), it is seen that on the
upper side the two fields are in the same direction, whereas on the lower side they
are in opposition. Hence, the combined effect is to strengthen the magnetic field
on the upper side and weaken it on the lower side, thus giving the distribution
shown in Fig. 27(c).
By combining diagrams similar to Figs 27(b) and 21, it is easy to understand that if
either the current in W or the polarity of magnets NS is reversed, the field is
strengthened on the lower side and weakened on the upper side of diagrams
corresponding to Fig. 27(b), so that the direction of the force acting on W is the
reverse of that shown in Fig. 27(c).
 Force on a current-carrying conductor
• On the other hand, if both the current through W and the polarity of the
magnets are reversed, the distribution of the resultant magnetic field and
therefore the direction of the force on W remain unaltered.

• By observation of the experiments, it can also be noted that the mechanical

force exerted by the conductor always acts in a direction perpendicular to the
plane of the conductor and the magnetic field direction. The direction is given
by the Fleming’s left-hand rule (motor rule) which states:

• "Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the left hand be
extended such that they are all at right-angles to each other, (as
shown in Fig. 28). If the first finger points in the direction of the
magnetic field, the second finger points in the direction of the
current, then the thumb will point in the direction of the motion of the
conductor.”
 Force on a current-carrying conductor
The rule can be summarized as follows:
1. Hold the thumb, first finger and second finger of the left hand in the manner
indicated by Fig. 28, whereby they are mutually at right angles.
2. Point the First finger in the Field direction.
3. Point the seCond finger in the Current direction.
4. The thuMb then indicates the direction of the Mechanical force exerted by the
conductor.
By trying this with your left hand, you can readily demonstrate that if either the current or
the direction of the field is reversed then the direction of the force is also reversed. Also
you can demonstrate that, if both current and field are reversed, the direction of the force
remains unchanged.

Fig. 28: Left-hand rule

 Force Determination
With the apparatus of Fig. 25, it can be shown qualitatively that the force on a conductor
carrying a current at right angles to a magnetic field is increased (a) when the current in the
conductor is increased, and (b) when the magnetic field is made stronger by bringing the
magnet nearer to the conductor. With the aid of more elaborate apparatus, the force on
the conductor can be measured for various currents and various densities of the magnetic
field, and it is found that
Force on conductor ∝ current × (flux density) × (length of conductor)
If F is the force on conductor in newtons, I the current through conductor in amperes and
l the length, in metres, of conductor at right angles to magnetic field
F [newtons] ∝ flux density × l [metres] × I [amperes]
The unit of flux density is taken as the density of a magnetic field such that a conductor carrying 1
ampere at right angles to that field has a force of 1 newton per metre acting upon it. This unit is termed
a tesla* (T).
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙: 𝐵 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 (𝑇)
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎; 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐵𝑙𝐼 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐹 = 𝐵𝑙𝐼
For a magnetic field having a cross-sectional area of A square metres and a uniform flux
density of B teslas, the total flux in webers* (Wb) is represented by the Greek capital letter Φ
(phi).
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙: Φ 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝑊𝑏)
 Force Determination
It follows that;
Φ [webers] = B[teslas] × 𝐴[𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 2 ]
∴ Φ = BA
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = Φ/A
Φ[𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠]
𝑜𝑟 𝐵 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑠 =
𝐴[𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 2 ]
𝑖. 𝑒. 1 𝑇 = 1 𝑊𝑏/𝑚2
Example: A conductor carries a current of 800 A at right angles to a magnetic field having
a density of 0.5 T. Calculate the force on the conductor in newtons per metre length.
Example: A rectangular coil measuring 200 mm by 100 mm is mounted such that it can be
rotated about the midpoints of the 100 mm sides. The axis of rotation is at right angles to
a magnetic field of uniform flux density 0.05 T. Calculate the flux in the coil for the
following conditions:
(a) the maximum flux through the coil and the position at which it occurs;
(b) the flux through the coil when the 100 mm sides are inclined at 45° to the direction of
the flux (Fig. 29).

Fig. 29
 Electromagnetic Induction
In 1831, Michael Faraday made the great discovery of electromagnetic induction, (a method of
obtaining an electric current with the aid of magnetic flux). He wound two coils, A and C,
on a steel ring R, as in Fig. 30 and found that, when switch S was closed, a deflection was
obtained on galvanometer G, and that, when S was opened, G was deflected in the reverse
direction. A few weeks later he found that, when a permanent magnet NS was moved
relative to a coil C (Fig. 31), galvanometer G was deflected in one direction and in the
reverse direction when the magnet was withdrawn. This experiment finally convinced
Faraday that an electric current could be produced by the movement of magnetic flux
relative to a coil.
Faraday also showed that the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is proportional to the rate at
which the magnetic flux passed through the coil is varied. Alternatively, we can say that,
when a conductor cuts or is cut by magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is generated in the conductor
and the magnitude of the generated e.m.f. is proportional to the rate at which the
conductor cuts or is cut by the magnetic flux.

Fig. 30: Electromagnetic induction Fig. 31: Electromagnetic induction

 Direction of induced e.m.f.
Two methods are available for deducing the direction of the induced or generated e.m.f.,
namely (a) Fleming’s* right-hand rule and (b) Lenz’s law. The former is empirical, but the
latter is fundamental in that it is based upon electrical principles.
Fleming’s right-hand rule: If the first finger of the right hand is pointed in the direction of the
magnetic flux, as in Fig. 32, and if the thumb is pointed in the direction of motion of the conductor
relative to the magnetic field, then the second finger, held at right angles to both the thumb and the first
finger, represents the direction of the e.m.f.
The manipulation of the thumb and fingers and their association with the correct quantity
present some difficulty to many students. Easy manipulation can be acquired only by
experience; and it may be helpful to associate Field or Flux with First finger, Motion of
the conductor relative to the field with the M in thuMb and e.m.f. with the E in sEcond
finger. If any two of these are correctly applied, the third is correct automatically.

Fig. 32: Fleming’s right-hand rule.

 Direction of induced e.m.f.
Lenz’s law:

Heinrich Lenz, a German physicist, enunciated a simple rule (in 1834), now known as
Lenz’s law, which can be expressed thus:
The direction of an induced e.m.f. is always such that it tends to set up a
current opposing the motion or the change of flux responsible for inducing
that e.m.f.
Let us consider the application of Lenz’s law to the ring shown in Fig. 30. By applying
either the screw or the grip rule given in the section of magnetic field due to an electric
current, we find that when S is closed and the battery has the polarity shown, the direction
of the magnetic flux in the ring is clockwise. Consequently, the current in C must be such
as to try to produce a flux in an anticlockwise direction, tending to oppose the growth of
the flux due to A, namely the flux which is responsible for the e.m.f. induced in C. But an
anticlockwise flux in the ring would require the current in C to be passing through the coil
from X to Y (Fig. 30). Hence, this must also be the direction of the e.m.f. induced in C.
 Magnitude of the generated or induced e.m.f
Figure 33 represents the elevation and plan of a conductor AA situated in an air-gap
between poles NS. Let AA to be carrying a current, I. By applying either the screw or the
grip rule of Magnetic field due to an electric current, it is found that the effect of this
current is to strengthen the field on the right and weaken that on the left of A, so that
there is a force of BlI newtons (Force determination) urging the conductor towards the
left, where B is the flux density (teslas) and l is the length (m) of conductor in the
magnetic field. Hence, a force of this magnitude has to be applied in the opposite
direction to move A towards the right. The work done in moving conductor AA through a
distance d metres to position BB in Fig. 33 is (BlI × d) joules.

Fig. 33: Conductor moved across magnetic field.

 Magnitude of the generated or induced e.m.f
If this movement of AA takes place at a uniform velocity in t seconds, the e.m.f. induced
in the conductor is constant at, say, E volts. Hence the electrical power generated in AA is
IE watts and the electrical energy is IEt watt seconds or joules. Since the mechanical
energy expended in moving the conductor horizontally across the gap is all converted into
electrical energy, then
𝑰𝑬𝒕 = 𝑩𝒍𝑰𝒅
𝑩𝒍𝒅
∴ 𝑬= = 𝑩𝒍𝒖
𝒕
where u is the velocity (m/s). 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐵𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 total flux, Ф webers, in the shaded area
in fig. 33. 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 from AA to
Ф 𝒘𝒆𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔
BB. Hence; 𝑬 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 =
𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔
i.e. the e.m.f., in volts, generated in a conductor is equal to the rate (in webers/second) at
which the magnetic flux is cutting or being cut by the conductor; and the weber may
therefore be defined as that magnetic flux which, when cut at a uniform rate by a conductor in 1 s,
generates an e.m.f. of 1V. In general, if a conductor cuts or is cut by a flux of dФ webers in
dt seconds
𝑑Ф
𝑒. 𝑓. 𝑚. 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑑𝑡
Example: Calculate the e.m.f. generated in the axle of a car travelling at 80 km/h, assuming the
length of the axle to be 2 m and the vertical component of the earth’s magnetic field to be 40 μT
(microteslas).
 Magnitude of e.m.f. induced in a coil
Suppose the magnetic flux through a coil of N turns to be increased by Φ webers in t
seconds due to, say, the relative movement of the coil and a magnet (Fig. 31). Since each
of the lines of magnetic flux cuts each turn, one turn can be regarded as a conductor cut
by Φ webers in t seconds; hence, from expression [Magnetic field of a solenoid], the
average e.m.f. induced in each turn is Φ/t volts. The current due to this e.m.f., by Lenz’s
law, tries to prevent the increase of flux, i.e. tends to set up an opposing flux. Thus, if the
magnet NS in Fig. 31 is moved towards coil C, the flux passing from left to right through
the latter is increased. The e.m.f. induced in the coil circulates a current in the direction
represented by the dot and cross in Fig. 34, where – for simplicity – coil C is represented
as one turn. The effect of this current is to distort the magnetic field as shown by the
dotted lines, thereby tending to push the coil away from the magnet. By 3rd law of
motion, there must be an equal and opposite force tending to oppose the movement of
the magnet.
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓. 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 oppose the
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 average e.m.f. induced
Ф
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑖𝑠; 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
𝒕
𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠/sec,
𝑵Ф
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓. 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑠; 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
𝒕
Fig. 34: Distortion of magnetic field by induced current.
 Magnitude of e.m.f. induced in a coil
which is the average rate of change of flux-linkages per second. The term ‘flux-linkages’
merely means the product of the flux in webers and the number of turns with which the
flux is linked. Thus if a coil of 20 turns has a flux of 0.1 Wb through it, the flux-linkages
= 0.1 × 20 = 2 weber-turns (Wb).
The turn is a dimensionless factor, hence the product of webers and turns is measured
only in webers. Some prefer to retain the term ‘turn’ but it does not conform to the SI.

𝑭𝒍𝒖𝒙 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙: Ѱ 𝒑𝒔𝒊 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝒘𝒆𝒃𝒆𝒓 (𝑾𝒃)

Ѱ = 𝑁Ф
From expression [Magnetic field of a solenoid] it follows that instantaneous value of
e.m.f., in volts, induced in a coil is the rate of change of flux-linkages, in weber-turns per
𝑑 𝑑Ѱ
second, or 𝑒 = 𝑁Ф 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 and 𝑒 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
This relationship is usually known as Faraday’s law, though it was not stated in this form by
Faraday.

From expression above we can define the weber as that magnetic flux which, linking a
circuit of one turn, induces in it an e.m.f. of 1 V when the flux is reduced to zero at a
uniform rate in 1 s.
 Magnitude of e.m.f. induced in a coil
Next, let us consider the case of the two coils, A and C, shown in Fig. 30. Suppose
that when switch S is closed, the flux in the ring increases by Φ webers in t
seconds. Then, if coil A has N1 turns, average e.m.f. induced in A is;

𝑁1 Ф
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑡
If coil C is wound with N2 turns, and if all the flux produced by coil A passes
𝑵𝟐 Ф
through C, average e.m.f. induced in C is; 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
𝒕
In this case the e.m.f. circulates a current in such a direction as to tend to set up a
flux in opposition to that produced by the current in coil A, thereby delaying the
growth of flux in the ring.
In general, if the magnetic flux through a coil increases by dФ webers in dt
𝒅Ф
seconds e.m.f. induced in coil is; 𝑵∙ 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
𝒅𝒕
𝒅Ф
𝒆 = 𝑵
𝒅𝒕
Example: A magnetic flux of 400 μWb passing through a coil of 1200 turns is
reversed in 0.1 s. Calculate the average value of the e.m.f. induced in the coil.
Summary of Magnetic Field

A magnetic field can be described using lines of flux. Such lines form closed
loops, do not cross and, when parallel, repel one another.
Magnetic fields have north and south poles. Like poles repel one another. Unlike
poles attract one another.
A current-carrying conductor lying in a magnetic field experiences a force.
The relative directions of the field, force and current are given by the left-hand rule.
When the magnetic flux linking a circuit is varied, an e.m.f. is induced in the circuit.
This is known as Faraday’s law.
The induced e.m.f. opposes the change of condition. This is known as Lenz’s law.
The relative directions of the field, motion and induced e.m.f. are given by the right-
hand rule.
 Introduction to magnetic circuits
In previous topic, we observed that one of the characteristics of lines of magnetic flux is
that each line forms a closed loop. For instance, in Fig. 35, the dotted lines represent the
flux set up within a ring made of steel. The complete closed path followed by any group
of magnetic flux lines is referred to as a magnetic circuit. One of the simplest forms of
magnetic circuit is the ring shown in Fig. 35 where the steel ring provides the space in
which the magnetic flux is created. Most rings are made like anchor rings in that their
cross-section is circular – such a ring is called a toroid.

Fig. 35: A totoid

 Magnetomotive force and magnetic field strength
In an electric circuit, the current is due to the existence of an electromotive force. By
analogy, we may say that in a magnetic circuit the magnetic flux is due to the existence of a
magnetomotive force (m.m.f.) caused by a current flowing through one or more turns. The
value of the m.m.f. is proportional to the current and to the number of turns. It is
descriptively expressed in ampere-turns; but for the purpose of dimensional analysis, it is
expressed in amperes, since the number of turns is dimensionless. Hence the unit of
magnetomotive force is the ampere.
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑆𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙: 𝑭 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑨
Sometimes the unit of magnetomotive force is shown as ampere-turns abbreviated as At.
If a current of I amperes flows through a coil of N turns, as shown in Fig. 35, the
magnetomotive force F is the total current linked with the magnetic circuit, namely IN
amperes. If the magnetic circuit is homogeneous and of uniform cross-sectional area, the
magnetomotive force per metre length of the magnetic circuit is termed the magnetic
field strength (represented by the symbol H). Thus, if the mean length of the magnetic
circuit of Fig. 35 is l metres,
𝑰𝑵
𝑯= 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆
𝒍
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑆𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙: 𝐻 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝐴/𝑚
Again this unit is sometimes given in ampere-turns per metre (At/m)
𝑭
𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑯= 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑭 = 𝑵𝑰 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔
𝒍
 Permeability of free space or magnetic constant
Let conductor A in Fig. 36 represent the cross-section of a long straight conductor, situated in a
vacuum and carrying a current of 1 A towards the paper, and let the return path of this current be
some considerable distance away from A so that the effect of the return current on the magnetic
field in the vicinity of A may be neglected. The lines of magnetic flux surrounding A will, by
symmetry, be in the form of concentric circles, and the dotted circle D represents the path of one of
these lines of flux at a radius of 1 m.

Fig. 36: Magnetic field at 1m radius due to current in a long straight conductor
Since conductor A and its return conductor form one turn, the magnetomotive force acting on path
D is 1 A; and since the length of this line of flux is 2π metres, the magnetic field strength, H, at a
radius of 1 m is 1/(2π) amperes per metre.
If the flux density in the region of line D is B teslas, it follows from expression above that the force
per metre length on a conductor C (parallel to A) carrying 1 A at right angles to this flux is given by
Force per metre length = B [T] × 1 [m] × 1 [A] = B newtons
 Permeability of free space or magnetic constant
But from the definition of the ampere this force is 2 × 10−7 𝑁, therefore flux density at 1 m radius
from conductor carrying 1 A is;
𝑩 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑻
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝐶 𝐵 2 × 10−7 [𝑇]
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, = = = 𝟒𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑯/𝒎
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑡 𝐶 𝐻 1
2 𝜋 [𝐴/𝑚]
The ratio B/H is termed the permeability of free space and is represented by the symbol 𝜇0 . Thus;
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑆𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙: 𝜇0 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡: ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 (𝐻/𝑚)
𝑩
𝝁𝟎 =
𝑯
The value of this is almost exactly the same whether the conductor A is placed in free space, in air or
in any other non-magnetic material such as water, oil, wood, copper, etc. In other words,
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 , 𝜇0 = B/H = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻/𝑚 . The
magnetic field strength for non-magnetic materials is;
𝐵 𝐵
𝐻= = 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒
𝜇0 4𝜋 × 10−7
It may be mentioned at this point that there is a definite relationship between 𝜇0 , 𝜖0 and the velocity
of light and other electromagnetic waves; thus
1 1 16 ≈ (2.998 × 108 )2
= ≈ 8.99 × 10
𝜇0 𝜖0 4𝜋 × 10−7 × 8.85 × 10−12
 Permeability of free space or magnetic constant
But the 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 2.998 × 108 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
1
∴ 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝜇0 𝜖0
This relationship was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in 1865 and enabled him to
predict the existence of radio waves about twenty years before their effect was
demonstrated experimentally by Heinrich Hertz.

Example: A coil of 200 turns is wound uniformly over a wooden ring having a mean
circumference of 600 mm and a uniform cross-sectional area of 500𝑚𝑚2 . If the current
through the coil is 4.0 A, calculate
(a) the magnetic field strength;
(b) the flux density;
(c) the total flux.

Example: Calculate the magnetomotive force required to produce a flux of 0.015 Wb

across an air-gap 2.5 mm long, having an effective area of 200𝑐𝑚2 .
 Relative Permeability
It can be shown that the magnetic flux inside a coil is intensified when a steel core is
inserted. It follows that if the non-magnetic core of a toroid, such as that shown in Fig.
35, is replaced by a steel core, the flux produced by a given m.m.f. is greatly increased; and
the ratio of the flux density produced in a material to the flux density produced in a
vacuum (or in a non-magnetic core) by the same magnetic field strength is termed the
relative permeability (denoted by the symbol 𝜇𝑟 ).
Any form of steel produces an increase in flux density for a given magnetic field strength.
The same observation can be made of all ferromagnetic materials, i.e. those which contain
iron, cobalt, nickel or gadolinium. Steels contain iron and are the most common form of
ferromagnetic material. For air, 𝜇𝑟 = 1, but for some forms of nickel–iron alloys the
relative permeability can be 100 000.
The value of the relative permeability of a ferromagnetic material is not a constant.
Instead it varies considerably for different values of the magnetic field strength, and it is
usually convenient to represent the relationship between the flux density and the magnetic
field strength graphically as in Fig. 37; and the curves in Figs 38 and 39 represent the
corresponding values of the relative permeability plotted against the magnetic field
strength and the flux density respectively.
From expression above, 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐻 for a non-magnetic material; hence, for a material
having a relative permeability 𝜇𝑟 ,
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝐻
 Relative Permeability

Fig. 37: Magnetization characteristics Fig. 38: 𝜇𝑟 /𝐻 characteristics for soft-magnetic

of soft-magnetic materials. materials.

Fig. 39: 𝜇𝑟 /𝐵 characteristics for soft-magnetic materials.

where absolute permeability; 𝝁 = 𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓 ∴ 𝑩 = 𝝁𝑯
 Reluctance
Let us consider a ferromagnetic ring having a cross-sectional area of A square metres and
a mean circumference of l metres (Fig. 35), wound with N turns carrying a current I
amperes, then total flux (Φ) = flux density × area

∴ Ф = 𝐵𝐴
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚. 𝑚. 𝑓. 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ.
∴ 𝐹 = 𝐻𝑙
Dividing equation of Total flux by m.m.f., we have;
Ф 𝐵𝐴 𝐴
= = 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 ×
𝐹 𝐻𝑙 𝑙
𝐹
∴ Ф = 𝑙
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴
𝐹 𝑙
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = =𝑆
Ф 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴
𝑆 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑙
𝐹 = Ф𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆 =
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴
The unit of reluctance is the ampere per weber, abbreviated to A/Wb, as in fact equation
above indicates;
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑆𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙: 𝑺 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒆𝒃𝒆𝒓(𝑨/𝑾𝒃)
 Reluctance
It is useful here to compare the calculation of the reluctance of a magnetic circuit with the
calculation of the resistance of an electric circuit. The resistance of a conductor of length
l, cross-sectional area A and resistivity 𝜌 is:
𝝆𝒍
𝑹=
𝑨

𝟏
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝝈 = , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠;
𝝆

𝒍
𝑹=
𝝈𝑨

This is very similar indeed to above equation, for the reluctance S, except permeability
𝜇(= 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 ) replaces σ. For both electrical and magnetic circuits, increasing the length of
the circuit increases the opposition to the flow of electric current or magnetic flux.
Similarly, decreasing the cross-sectional area of the electric or magnetic circuit decreases
the opposition to the flow of electric current or magnetic flux.
 Ohm’s law for a magnetic circuit
Equation F=ФS can thus be regarded as ‘Ohm’s law for a magnetic circuit’, since the
m.m.f. (F), the total number of ampere-turns (= NI) acting on the magnetic circuit:
𝒎. 𝒎. 𝒇. = 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙 × 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆;
𝑭 = Ф𝑺
𝒐𝒓 𝑵𝑰 = Ф𝑺
It is clear that m.m.f. (F) is analogous to e.m.f. (E) and flux (Ф) is analogous to current (I)
in a d.c. resistive circuit, where;
𝒆. 𝒎. 𝒇. = 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 × 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑬 = 𝑰𝑹
The laws of resistors in series or parallel also hold for reluctances. For example, note how the
reluctances of the three different parts of the magnetic circuit in Example below can be added, like
resistors in series. However, a big difference between electrical resistance R and magnetic reluctance
S is that resistance is associated with an energy loss (the rate is 𝐼 2 𝑅) whereas reluctance is not.
Magnetic fluxes take leakage paths whereas electric currents normally do not.

Another difference is that, as the e.m.f. is increased in an electric circuit, the current will likewise
increase. Over a wide range of current densities, the increase in current is directly proportional to the
increase in e.m.f. because conductivity σ is constant. This proportionality changes only when the
current density reaches such a high value that the conductor becomes hot. In a magnetic circuit, the
relative permeability 𝜇𝑟 is not constant, as Fig. 38 has shown. As we increase the m.m.f. in the
circuit, the flux density will increase but not in direct proportion to the applied m.m.f.
 Ohm’s law for a magnetic circuit
It is helpful to tabulate the comparison between d.c. resistive and magnetic circuits. The Table makes
useful analogies between electric and magnetic circuit quantities.

Example: A mild-steel ring having a cross-sectional area of 500𝑚𝑚2 and a mean circumference of
400 mm has a coil of 200 turns wound uniformly around it. Calculate: (a) the reluctance of the
ring; (b) the current required to produce a flux of 800 μWb in the ring.
Example: A magnetic circuit comprises three parts in series, each of uniform cross-sectional area
(c.s.a.). They are: (a) a length of 80 mm and c.s.a. 50𝑚𝑚2 , (b) a length of 60 mm and c.s.a. 90𝑚𝑚2 ,
(c) an air-gap of length 0.5 mm and c.s.a. 150𝑚𝑚2 .
A coil of 4000 turns is wound on part (b), and the flux density in the air-gap is 0.30 T. Assuming that
all the flux passes through the given circuit, and that the relative permeability 𝜇𝑟 is 1300, estimate the
coil current to produce such a flux density.
 Determination of the B/H characteristic
(a) By means of a fluxmeter
Figure 40 shows a steel ring of uniform cross-section, uniformly wound with a coil P, thereby
eliminating magnetic leakage. Coil P is connected to a battery through a reversing switch RS, an
ammeter A and a variable resistor R1.
Another coil S, which need not be distributed around the ring, is connected through a two-way
switch K to fluxmeter F which is a special type of permanent-magnet moving-coil instrument.
Current is led into and out of the moving coil of F by fine wires or ligaments so arranged as to exert
negligible control over the position of the moving coil. When the flux in the ring is varied, the e.m.f.
induced in S sends a current through the fluxmeter and produces a deflection that is proportional to
the change of flux-linkages in coil S.
The current through coil P is adjusted to a desired value by means of R1 and switch RS is then
reversed several times to bring the steel into a ‘cyclic’ condition, i.e. into a condition such that the
flux in the ring reverses from a certain value in one direction to the same value in the reverse
direction. During this operation, switch K should be on d, thereby short-circuiting the fluxmeter.
With switch RS on, say, a, switch K is moved over to c, the current through P is reversed by moving
RS quickly over to b and the fluxmeter deflection is noted.
If NP is the number of turns on coil P, l the mean circumference of the ring, in metres, and I the
current through P, in amperes, the magnetic field strength is;

𝐼𝑁𝑝
𝐻= 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒
𝑙
 Determination of the B/H characteristic
If θ is the fluxmeter deflection when current through P is reversed and c the fluxmeter constant =
no. of weber-turns per unit of scale deflection,
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 − 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑆 = 𝑐𝜃
If the flux in the ring changes from Φ to −Φ when the current through coil P is reversed, and if NS
is the number of turns on S, change of flux-linkages with coil S is;
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 × 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑆 = 2Ф𝑁𝑠
Equating above two equations, we have;
2Ф𝑁𝑠 = 𝑐𝜃
𝑐𝜃
𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 Ф= 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
2𝑁𝑠
If A is the cross-sectional area of the ring in square metres
Ф 𝑐𝜃
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐵 = = 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑠
𝐴 2𝐴𝑁𝑠

Fig. 40: Determination of the magnetization curve for a steel ring.

The test is performed with different values of the current; and from the data a graph representing
the variation of flux density with magnetic field strength can be plotted, as in Fig. 37.
 Determination of the B/H characteristic
(b) By means of a ballistic galvanometer
A ballistic galvanometer has a moving coil suspended between the poles of a permanent magnet, but
the coil is wound on a non-metallic former, so that there is very little damping when the coil has a
resistor of high resistance in series. The first deflection or ‘throw’ is proportional to the number of
coulombs discharged through the galvanometer if the duration of the discharge is short compared
with the time of one oscillation.
If θ is the first deflection or ‘throw’ of the ballistic galvanometer when the current through coil P is
reversed and k, the ballistic constant of the galvanometer, equals quantity of electricity in coulombs
per unit deflection, then
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑘𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠
If Φ is the flux produced in ring by I amperes through P and t the time, in seconds, of reversal of
flux, average e.m.f. induced in S is;
2Ф
𝑁𝑠 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑡
If R is the total resistance of the secondary circuit, the quantity of electricity through a ballistic
galvanometer is average current × time which is;
2Ф𝑁𝑠 2Ф𝑁𝑠
×𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠
𝑡𝑅 𝑅
Equating above two equations, we have;
2Ф𝑁𝑠 𝑘𝜃𝑅
𝑘𝜃 = ; ∴ Ф= 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑅 2𝑁𝑠
The values of the flux density, etc. can then be calculated as already described for method (a).
 Comparison of electromagnetic and electrostatic terms
It may be helpful to compare the terms and symbols used in electrostatics and electromagnetism
Further Summary
A magnetic flux is created by a magnetomotive force.
The magnetic field strength is the m.m.f. gradient at any point in a field.
The magnetic field strength and the flux density at any point in a field are
related by the permeability of the material in which the magnetic field is
created.
The ratio of the permeability to that of free space is termed the relative
permeability. For ferromagnetic materials, the relative permeability varies
according to the magnetic field strength.
The variation of flux density with magnetic field strength is illustrated by the
magnetization characteristic (or B/H curve).
The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is the ratio of the magnetomotive force
to the flux.
 Lecture 3
Kirchhoff’s Laws
 Kirchhoff ’s laws
Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits, except it is coupled with
Kirchhoff ’s two laws. The laws which determine the currents and voltage drops in d.c.
networks are Ohm’s law, the laws for resistors in series and in parallel and Kirchhoff ’s
laws. In addition, there are a number of circuit theorems which have been developed for
solving problems in electrical networks. They include the superposition theorem,
Thévenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem and the maximum power transfer theorem.
The Kirchhoff ’s laws are formally known as Kirchhoff ’s current law (KCL) and
Kirchhoff ’s voltage law (KVL).
Kirchhoff ’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node
(or a closed boundary) is zero. In other words, “At any junction in an electric circuit, the
total current flowing towards that junction is equal to the total current flowing away
from the junction”.

σ𝑁
𝑛=1 𝑖𝑛 = 0

where N is the number of branches connected to the node and 𝑖𝑛 is the nth current
entering (or leaving) the node.
 Kirchhoff ’s laws
• Kirchhoff ’s first law i.e. KCL is based on the law of conservation of charge,
which requires that the algebraic sum of charges within a system cannot
change.
• Kirchhoff ’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages
around a closed path (or loop) is zero. The KVL is based on the principle of
conservation of energy. Mathematically, KVL states that
𝑀

෍ 𝑣𝑚 = 0
𝑚=1

where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches in
the loop) and 𝑣𝑚 is the mth voltage. The KVL is also stated thus: “In any closed
loop in a network, the algebraic sum of the voltage drops (i.e. products of
current and resistance) taken around the loop is equal to the resultant e.m.f.
acting in that loop.
Kirchhoff ’s laws
Kirchhoff ’s laws
Label all V’s and R’s
Kirchhoff ’s laws
Kirchhoff ’s laws
Kirchhoff ’s laws
 Kirchhoff ’s laws
Making loop equations
• For each loop:
1. Start at node, go around to first component.
2. If component is a battery, count the voltage as positive if you come to
the ‘-’ terminal first.
3. If component is a resistor, count the IR as positive if you come to the
resistor going against the current.
4. Repeat for all components until you are back at the node.
5. Set the sum of all of the contributions from 2 and 3 to zero.
Kirchhoff ’s laws
 Making node equations

• For each node:

1. Currents coming into node are positive, others are negative.
2. Set the sum of all of the contributions from 1 to zero.
• Creating equation for Node 1
 Kirchhoff ’s laws
• Example
• Determine the values of the current flowing through each of the
resistors in the circuit shown. (Ans: 𝐼1 = 0.143amps, and 𝐼2 =0.429amps.)

• The circuit has two nodes (at A and B). We have the choice of choosing
only two of the three loops shown (blue). This is because only two of
the loops are independent.
• Node A: 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3
• Node B: 𝐼3 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2

• Loop 1: 10 − 𝐼1 𝑅1 − 𝐼3 𝑅3 = 0
• Loop 2: 20 − 𝐼2 𝑅2 − 𝐼3 𝑅3 = 0
 Examples
Example 1: For the network shown below, determine the voltage 𝑉1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉3.
Example 2: Determine 𝑣0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 in the circuit shown below.

Example 3: Find the currents and voltages in the circuits shown below using Kirchhoff ’s laws.
 Practice Examples
Example 4: For the network shown below, calculate the currents in each of the resistor.
Example 5: Calculate the current in each branch of the network shown below.
 Lecture 4

Circuit Theorems
Superposition Theorem
Thevenin’s Theorem
Norton’s Theorem
 Superposition Theorem
If a circuit has two or more independent sources, one way to determine the value of a
specific variable (voltage or current) is to use nodal or mesh analysis. Another way is to
determine the contribution of each independent source to the variable and then add them
up. The latter approach is known as the superposition.

The superposition principle states that “the voltage across (or current through) an element in a
linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element due to each
independent source acting alone”.
The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than one
independent source by calculating the contribution of each independent source
separately. However, to apply the superposition principle, we must keep two things in
mind:

1. We consider one independent source at a time while all other independent sources are
turned off. This implies that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a short circuit),
and every current source by 0 A (or an open circuit).
2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables. With
these in mind, we apply the superposition principle in three steps:
 Superposition Theorem
Steps to Apply Superposition Principle:
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or
current) due to that active source using nodal or mesh analysis.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources.

Analyzing a circuit using superposition has one major disadvantage: it may very likely
involve more work. If the circuit has three independent sources, we may have to analyze
three simpler circuits each providing the contribution due to the respective individual
source. However, superposition does help reduce a complex circuit to simpler circuits
through replacement of voltage sources by short circuits and of current sources by open
circuits.
Keep in mind that superposition is based on linearity. For this reason, it is not applicable
to the effect on power due to each source, because the power absorbed by a resistor
depends on the square of the voltage or current. If the power value is needed, the current
through (or voltage across) the element must be calculated first using superposition.
 Superposition Theorem
Example: Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit below.

Example: By means of the superposition theorem, calculate the currents in the network shown
below.

Example: Find 𝑖0 in the circuit below using superposition theorem.

Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTH in series with a resistor RTH where
VTH is the open circuit voltage at the terminals and RTH is the input or equivalent
resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off .

• The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Thevenin’s Theorem is as follows:
1. Remove the load resistor R or component concerned.
L

2. Find R by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all the current sources.
S

3. Find V by the usual circuit analysis methods.

S

4. Find the current flowing through the load resistor R .

L
 Norton’s Theorem
When a branch in a circuit is open-circuited the remainder of the circuit can be
represented by one source of e.m.f. in series with a resistor; it follows from what has been
said in our past classes that it could equally well be represented by a source of current in
parallel with the same resistor. Norton’s theorem is therefore a restatement of Thévenin’s
theorem using an equivalent current-generator source instead of the equivalent voltage-
generator source. It can therefore be stated that:
The current which flows in any branch of a network is the same as that which would flow
in the branch if it were connected across a source of electrical energy, the short-circuit
current of which is equal to the current that would flow in a short-circuit across the
branch, and the internal resistance of which is equal to the resistance which appears across
the open-circuited branch terminals.

Norton’s Theorem
Norton’s Theorem

• The main difference between Thevenin’s theorem and Norton’s theorem

is that, Thevenin’s theorem provides an equivalent voltage source and an
equivalent series resistance, while Norton’s theorem provides an
equivalent Current source and an equivalent parallel resistance.

Norton’s Theorem may be stated thus:

• Any Linear Electric Network or complex circuit with Current and Voltage sources
can be replaced by an equivalent circuit containing of a single independent Current
Source IN and a Parallel Resistance RN.
Simple Steps to Analyze Electric Circuit through Norton’s Theorem

1. Short the load resistor.

2. Calculate (measure) the Short Circuit Current. This is the Norton Current (IN)
3. Open Current Sources, Short Voltage Sources and Open Load Resistor.
4. Calculate the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Norton Resistance (RN)
5. Now, redraw the circuit with measured short circuit Current (IN) in Step (2) as
current Source and measured open circuit resistance (RN) in step (4) as a parallel
resistance and connect the load resistor which we had removed in Step (3). This
is the Equivalent Norton Circuit of that Linear Electric Network or Complex
circuit which had to be simplified and analyzed.
6. Now find the Load current flowing through and Load Voltage across Load
Resistor by using the Current divider rule. IL = IN / (RN / (RN+ RL)).
 Norton’s Theorem
Example: Calculate the potential difference across the 2.0Ω resistor in the network shown in figure
below.

Example: Calculate the current in the 5.0Ω resistor in the network shown in the figure below.
 Lecture 5

Reciprocity
RL, RC, RLC Circuits
 Reciprocity Theorem
Admittance Parameters
Let us now turn our attention to two-port networks. We will assume in all that follows that
the network is composed of linear elements and contains no independent sources;
dependent sources are permissible, however. Further conditions will also be placed on the
network in some special cases.
Consider the two-port as shown in Fig. 1; the voltage and current at the input terminals
are 𝑉1 and 𝐼1 , and 𝑉2 and 𝐼2 are specified at the output port. The directions of 𝐼1 and 𝐼2
are both customarily selected as into the network at the upper conductors (and out at the
lower conductors). Since the network is linear and contains no independent sources within
it, 𝐼1 may be considered to be the superposition of two components, one caused by 𝑉1 and
the other by 𝑉2 . When the same argument is applied to 𝐼2 , we may begin with the set of
equations

Fig. 1: A general two-port with terminal voltages and currents specified.

 Reciprocity Theorem
The two-port is composed of linear elements, possibly including dependant sources, but
not containing any independent sources.

𝑰𝟏 = 𝒚𝟏𝟏 𝑽𝟏 + 𝒚𝟏𝟐 𝑽𝟐 … … … … … … . 𝒆𝒒. 𝟏

𝑰𝟐 = 𝒚𝟐𝟏 𝑽𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐𝟐 𝑽𝟐 … … … … … … . 𝒆𝒒. 𝟐
where the y’s are proportionality constants, or unknown coefficients. They are called the y
(or admittance) parameters, and are defined by Eqs. [1] and [2]. The y parameters, as well
as few other sets of parameters are represented as matrices.
Here, we define the (2 × 1) column matrix I,

𝑰𝟏
𝑰= … … … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟑.
𝑰𝟐
the (2 × 2) square matrix of the y parameters,

𝒚𝟏𝟏 𝒚𝟏𝟐
𝒚= 𝒚 … … … … … … . . 𝒆𝒒 𝟒.
𝟐𝟏 𝒚𝟐𝟐
and the (2 × 1) column matrix V,
𝑽𝟏
𝑽= … … … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟓.
𝑽𝟐
 Reciprocity Theorem
Thus, we may write the matrix equation I = yV, or

𝑰𝟏 𝒚𝟏𝟏 𝒚𝟏𝟐 𝑽𝟏
= 𝒚
𝑰𝟐 𝟐𝟏 𝒚𝟐𝟐 𝑽𝟐
and matrix multiplication of the right-hand side gives us the equality

𝑰𝟏 𝒚𝟏𝟏 𝑽𝟏 + 𝒚𝟏𝟐 𝑽𝟐
=
𝑰𝟐 𝒚𝟐𝟏 𝑽𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐𝟐 𝑽𝟐
These (2 × 1) matrices must be equal, element by element, and thus we are
led to the defining equations, [1] and [2].
The most useful and informative way to attach a physical meaning to the y
parameters is through a direct inspection of Eqs. [1] and [2]. Consider Eq.
[1], for example; if we let V2 be zero, then we see that y11 must be given by
the ratio of I1 to [Link] therefore describe y11 as the admittance measured
at the input terminals with the output terminals short-circuited (V2 = 0). Since
there can be no question which terminals are short-circuited, y11 is best
described as the short-circuit input admittance.
Alternatively, we might describe y11 as the reciprocal of the input impedance measured with the
output terminals short-circuited, but a description as an admittance is obviously more direct. It
is not the name of the parameter that is important. Rather, it is the conditions which must be
applied to Eq. [1] or [2] and hence to the network, that are most meaningful.
When the conditions are determined, the parameter can be found directly from an analysis of
the circuit (or by experiment on the physical circuit). Each of the y parameters may be
described as a current-voltage ratio with either V1=0 (the input terminals short-circuited) or V2
=0 (the output terminals short-circuited):

…….eq 6 to 9

Because each parameter is an admittance which is obtained by short-circuiting either the output
or the input port, the y parameters are known as the short-circuit admittance parameters.
The specific name of y11 is the short-circuit input admittance, y22 is the short-circuit
output admittance, and y12 and y21 are the short-circuit transfer admittances.
 Reciprocity Theorem
Example: Find the four short-circuit admittance parameters for the resistive two-port
shown in figure below.

Consider the simple two-port network of the first example above, shown in the second
example with a practical current source connected to the input port and a resistive load
connected to the output port. A relationship must now exist between V1 and I1 that is
independent of the two-port network. This relationship may be determined solely from
this external circuit. If we apply KCL (or write a single nodal equation) at the input,
 Reciprocity Theorem
The advantages of two-port analysis do not show up very strongly for such a simple
example, but it should be apparent that once the y parameters are determined for a more
complicated two-port, the performance of the two-port for different terminal conditions
is easily determined; it is necessary only to relate V1 to I1 at the input and V2 to I2 at the
output.
In the example just concluded, y12 and y21 were both found to be −0.1 S. It is not difficult
to show that this equality is also obtained if three general impedances ZA, ZB, and ZC are
contained in this network. It is somewhat more difficult to determine the specific
conditions which are necessary in order that y12 = y21, but the use of determinant notation
is of some help. Let us see if the relationships of Eqs. [6] to [9] can be expressed in terms
of the impedance determinant and its minors.
Since our concern is with the two-port and not with the specific networks with which it is
terminated, we will let V1 and V2 be represented by two ideal voltage sources. Equation [6]
is applied by letting V2=0 (thus short-circuiting the output) and finding the input
admittance. The network now, however, is simply a one-port, and the input impedance of
a one-port was found in our earlier analysis. We select loop 1 to include the input
terminals, and let I1 be that loop’s current; we identify (−I2) as the loop current in loop 2
and assign the remaining loop currents in any convenient manner.
Thus,
 Reciprocity Theorem
Their equality is shown by first interchanging the rows and columns of one minor (for
example, ∆21 ), an operation which any college algebra book proves is valid, and then
letting every mutual impedance Zij be replaced by Zji. Thus, we set
Z12 = Z21 Z23 = Z32 etc.
This equality of Zij and Zji is evident for the three familiar passive elements—the resistor,
capacitor, and inductor—and it is also true for mutual inductance. However, it is not true
for every type of device which we may wish to include inside a two-port network.
Specifically, it is not true in general for a dependent source, and it is not true for the
gyrator, a useful model for Hall-effect devices and for waveguide sections containing
ferrites. Over a narrow range of radian frequencies, the gyrator provides an additional
phase shift of 180° for a signal passing from the output to the input over that for a signal
in the forward direction, and thus y12 = −y21. A common type of passive element leading
to the inequality of Zij and Zji, however, is a nonlinear element.
Any device for which Zij = Zji is called a bilateral element, and a circuit which contains
only bilateral elements is called a bilateral circuit. We have therefore shown that an
important property of a bilateral two-port is
y12 = y21
and this property is glorified by stating it as the reciprocity theorem:
 Reciprocity Theorem
In any passive linear bilateral network, if the single voltage source Vx in branch x
produces the current response Iy in branch y, then the removal of the voltage source from
branch x and its insertion in branch y will produce the current response Iy in branch x.

If we had been working with the admittance determinant of the circuit and had proved
that the minors ∆21 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆12 of the admittance determinant ∆𝑌 were equal, then we
should have obtained the reciprocity theorem in its dual form:

In any passive linear bilateral network, if the single current source Ix between nodes x and
x produces the voltage response Vy between nodes y and y, then the removal of the
current source from nodes x and x and its insertion between nodes y and y will produce
the voltage response Vy between nodes x and x.
 RC, RL circuits
Introduction

Having considered the three passive elements (resistors, capacitors, and inductors) (and
one active element (the op amp)) individually, we can consider circuits that contain
various combinations of two or three of the passive elements. In this topic, we shall
examine two types of simple circuits: a circuit comprising a resistor and capacitor and a
circuit comprising a resistor and an inductor. These are called RC and RL circuits,
respectively. As simple as these circuits are, they find continual applications in electronics,
communications, and control systems, as we shall see.

We carry out the analysis of RC and RL circuits by applying Kirchhoff ’s laws, as we did
for resistive circuits. The only difference is that applying Kirchhoff ’s laws to purely
resistive circuits results in algebraic equations, while applying the laws to RC and RL
circuits produces differential equations, which are more difficult to solve than algebraic
equations. The differential equations resulting from analyzing RC and RL circuits are of
the first order. Hence, the circuits are collectively known as first-order circuits.

A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-order differential equation.

 RC, RL Circuit
In addition to there being two types of first-order circuits (RC and RL), there are
two ways to excite the circuits. The first way is by initial conditions of the storage
elements in the circuits. In these so-called source-free circuits, we assume that energy
is initially stored in the capacitive or inductive element. The energy causes current
to flow in the circuit and is gradually dissipated in the resistors. Although source-
free circuits are by definition free of independent sources, they may have
dependent sources.

The second way of exciting first-order circuits is by independent sources. In this

topic, the independent sources we will consider are dc sources. (In later topic of
RLC circuit, sinusoidal and exponential sources are considered).
 RC Circuit
The source-free RC circuit
A source-free RC circuit occurs when its dc source is suddenly disconnected. The energy
already stored in the capacitor is released to the resistors.
Consider a series combination of a resistor and an initially charged capacitor shown. (The
resistor and capacitor may be the equivalent resistance and equivalent capacitance of
combinations of resistors and capacitors.) Our objective is to determine the circuit
response, which, for pedagogic reasons, we assume to be the voltage v(t) across the
capacitor.

Fig.: A source-free RC circuit.

Since the capacitor is initially charged, we can assume that at time t = 0, the initial voltage
is;
𝒗 𝟎 = 𝑽𝟎 … … … … … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟏
With the corresponding value of the energy stored as;
𝟏 𝟐
𝒘 𝟎 = 𝑪𝑽𝟎 … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟐
𝟐
 RC Circuit
Applying KCL at the top node of the circuit in the Figure shown,
𝒊𝑪 + 𝒊𝑹 = 𝟎 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟑
By definition,
𝒅𝒗 𝒗
𝒊𝑪 = 𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝑹 = .
𝒅𝒕 𝑹
Thus,
𝒅𝒗 𝒗
𝑪 + = 𝟎 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟒𝒂
𝒅𝒕 𝑹
Or
𝒅𝒗 𝒗
+ = 𝟎 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟒𝒃
𝒅𝒕 𝑹𝑪
This is a first-order differential equation, since only the first derivative of v is involved. To solve
it, we rearrange the terms as;
𝒅𝒗 𝟏
=− 𝒅𝒕 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟓
𝒗 𝑹𝑪
Integrating both sides, we get
𝒕
𝐥𝐧 𝒗 = − + 𝐥𝐧 𝑨
𝑹𝑪
where ln 𝐴 is the integration constant. Thus,
𝒗 𝒕
𝐥𝐧 = − … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟔
𝑨 𝑹𝑪
 RC Circuit
Taking powers of e produces
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝒆−𝒕/𝑹𝑪
But from the initial conditions, 𝒗 𝟎 = 𝑨 = 𝑽𝟎 . Hence,
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝟎 𝒆−𝒕/𝑹𝑪 … … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟕
This shows that the voltage response of the RC circuit is an exponential decay of the
initial voltage. Since the response is due to the initial energy stored and the physical
characteristics of the circuit and not due to some external voltage or current source, it is
called the natural response of the circuit.
The natural response of a circuit refers to the behaviour (in terms of voltages and
currents) of the circuit itself, with no external sources of excitation.
The natural response is illustrated graphically in the Fig. below. Note that at t = 0, we have
the correct initial condition as in Eq. (1). As t increases, the voltage decreases toward zero.
The rapidity with which the voltage decreases is expressed in terms of the time constant,
denoted by the lower case Greek letter tau, τ .

Fig. : The voltage response of the RC circuit.

 RC Circuit
This implies that at t = τ , Eq. (7) becomes
𝑽𝟎 𝒆−𝒕/𝑹𝑪 = 𝑽𝟎 𝒆−𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝟖𝑽𝟎
Or
𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . 𝒆𝒒 𝟖
In terms of the time constant, Eq. (7) can be written as

𝒕
−
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝟎 𝒆 … … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟗
𝝉

With a calculator it is easy to show that the value of v(t)/V0 is as shown in the Table
below. It is evident from the Table that the voltage v(t) is less than 1 percent of V0 after 5τ
(five time constants). Thus, it is customary to assume that the capacitor is fully discharged
(or charged) after five time constants. In other words, it takes 5τ for the circuit to reach its
final state or steady state when no changes take place with time. Notice that for every time
interval of τ , the voltage is reduced by 36.8 percent of its previous value, v(t + τ) = v(t)/e
= 0.368v(t), regardless of the value of t .

𝑣 𝑡
Table: Value of = 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
𝑉0
 RC Circuit
It is observed in Eq. (8) that the smaller the time constant, the more rapidly the voltage
decreases, i.e. the faster the response. This is illustrated in Fig. 50. A circuit with a small
time constant gives a fast response in that it reaches the steady state (or final state) quickly
due to quick dissipation of energy stored, whereas a circuit with a large time constant gives
a slow response because it takes longer time to reach steady state. At any rate, whether the
time constant is small or large, the circuit reaches steady state in five time constants.

𝑣
Fig. 49: Graphical determination of the time Fig. 50: Plot of = 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 for various
𝑉0
Constant 𝜏 from the response curve. Values of the time constant.

With the voltage v(t) in Eq. (9), we can find the current 𝑖𝑅 (𝑡),
𝒗 𝒕 𝑽𝟎 −𝒕/𝝉
𝒊𝑹 𝒕 = = 𝒆 … … … … … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟏𝟎
𝑹 𝑹
 RC Circuit
The power dissipated in the resistor is
𝑽𝟐𝟎 −𝟐𝒕/𝝉
𝒑 𝒕 = 𝒗𝒊𝑹 = 𝒆 … … … … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟏𝟏
𝑹
The energy absorbed by the resistor up to time t is
𝒕 𝒕 𝑽𝟐𝟎 −𝟐𝒕/𝝉
𝒘𝑹 𝒕 = ‫𝒕𝒅 𝒑 𝟎׬‬ = ‫𝒆 𝑹 𝟎׬‬ 𝒅𝒕
𝒕
𝝉𝑽𝟐𝟎 −𝟐𝒕 𝟏 𝟐𝒕
−𝝉
= − 𝒆 𝝉 อ = 𝑪𝑽𝟐𝟎 𝟏− 𝒆 , 𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪 … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟏𝟐
𝟐𝑹 𝟐
𝟎
𝟏
Notice that as 𝒕 = ∞, 𝒘𝑹 (∞) → 𝟐 𝑪𝑽𝟐𝟎 , which is the same as 𝒘𝑪 (𝟎), the energy initially stored in
the capacitor. The energy that was initially stored in the capacitor is eventually dissipated in the
resistor.
RC Circuit
In summary:
The Key to Working with a Source - free RC Circuit is Finding:
1. The initial voltage v(0) = 𝑽𝟎 across the capacitor.
2. The time constant τ .
With these two items, we obtain the response as the capacitor voltage 𝒗𝒄 𝒕 = 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝒗(𝟎)𝒆−𝒕/𝝉 . Once
the capacitor voltage is first obtained, other variables (capacitor current 𝑖𝐶 , resistor voltage 𝑣𝑅 , and
resistor current 𝑖𝑅 ) can be determined. In finding the time constant τ = RC, R is often the Thevenin
equivalent resistance at the terminals of the capacitor; that is, we take out the capacitor C and find R =
RTh at its terminals.
 RC Circuit
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑐 , 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 0 from 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑐 0 = 15𝑉.

F𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑐 , 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑐 0 = 30𝑉

The switch in the circuit in Figure below has been closed for a long time, and it is opened
at t = 0. Find v(t) for t ≥ 0. Calculate the initial energy stored in the capacitor.
 RL Circuit
Consider the series connection of a resistor and an inductor, as shown in Figure below.
Our goal is to determine the circuit response, which we will assume to be the current i(t)
through the inductor. We select the inductor current as the response in order to take
advantage of the idea that the inductor current cannot change instantaneously. At t = 0,
we assume that the inductor has an initial current I0, or

Fig.: A source-free RL circuit.

𝒊 𝟎 = 𝑰𝟎 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟏𝟑
With the corresponding energy stored in the inductor as
𝟏
𝒘 𝟎 = 𝑳𝑰𝟐𝟎 … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟏𝟒
𝟐
Applying KVL around the loop in Figure 51;
𝒗𝑳 + 𝒗𝑹 = 𝟎 … … … … … … … … … … . … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟏𝟓
𝑑𝑖
But 𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑅 = 𝑖𝑅.
𝑑𝑡
Thus,
 RL Circuit
𝒅𝒊
𝑳 𝒅𝒕 + 𝑹𝒊 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒊 𝑹
𝒐𝒓 + 𝒊 = 𝟎 … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟏𝟔
𝒅𝒕 𝑳
Rearranging terms and integrating gives
𝒊(𝒕) 𝒕
𝒅𝒊 𝑹
න = −න 𝒅𝒕
𝑰𝟎 𝒊 𝟎 𝑳
𝒊(𝒕) 𝑹𝒕 𝒕 𝑹𝒕
𝐥𝐧𝒊ȁ𝑰𝟎 = − 𝑳ቚ ֜ 𝐥𝐧 𝒊(𝒕) − 𝐥𝐧 𝑰𝟎 = − + 𝟎
𝟎 𝑳
𝒊 𝒕 𝑹𝒕
𝐥𝐧 =− … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟏𝟕
𝑰𝟎 𝑳

Taking the powers of e, we have

𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑰𝟎 𝒆−𝑹𝒕/𝑳 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟏𝟖 Fig. 52: The current response
of the RL circuit.
This shows that the natural response of the RL circuit is an exponential decay of the initial current.
The current response is shown in Fig. 52. It is evident from Eq. (18) that the time constant for the
RL circuit is
𝑳
𝝉 = 𝑹 … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟏𝟗
with τ again having the unit of seconds. Thus, Eq. (18) may be written as
𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑰𝟎 𝒆−𝒕/𝝉 … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟐𝟎
 RL Circuit
With the current in Eq. (20), we can find the voltage across the resistor as
𝒗𝑹 𝒕 = 𝒊𝑹 = 𝑰𝟎 𝑹𝒆−𝒕/𝝉 … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟐𝟏
The power dissipated in the resistor is
𝒑 = 𝒗𝑹 𝒊 = 𝑰𝟐𝟎 𝑹𝒆−𝟐𝒕/𝝉 … … … … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟐𝟐
The energy absorbed by the resistor is;
𝒕 𝒕 𝒕
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐𝒕
−𝝉ฬ 𝑳
𝒘𝑹 𝒕 = න 𝒑 𝒅𝒕 = න 𝑰𝟐𝟎 𝑹𝒆−𝟐𝒕/𝝉 𝒅𝒕 = − 𝝉 𝑰𝟎 𝑹𝒆 , 𝝉=
𝟎 𝟎 𝟐 𝟎 𝑹
𝟐𝒕
𝟏 −𝝉
Or 𝒘𝑹 𝒕 = 𝑳𝑰𝟐𝟎 𝟏−𝒆 … … … … … … … 𝒆𝒒 𝟐𝟑
𝟐
𝟏
Note that as t → ∞, 𝒘𝑹 ∞ → 𝑳𝑰𝟐𝟎 , which is the same as 𝒘𝑳 (𝟎), the initial energy
𝟐
stored in the inductor as in Eq. (14). Again, the energy initially stored in the inductor is
eventually dissipated in the resistor.
RL Circuit

In summary:
The Key to Working with a Source-free RL circuit is to find:
1. The initial current 𝑖 0 = 𝐼0 through the inductor.
2. The time constant 𝜏 of the circuit.
With the two items, we obtain the response as the inductor current 𝒊𝑳 𝒕 = 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒊(𝟎)𝒆−𝒕/𝝉 . Once we
determine the inductor current 𝑖𝐿 , other variables (inductor voltage 𝑣𝐿 , resistor voltage 𝑣𝑅 , and resistor
current 𝑖𝑅 ) can be obtained. Note that in general, R in Eq. (19) is the Thevenin resistance at the
terminals of the inductor.
 RL Circuit
Calculate 𝑖 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑥 (𝑡) in the circuit shown below. Assume 𝑖 0 = 10𝐴

Find 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑥 in the circuit below. Let 𝑖 0 = 5𝐴.

The switch in the circuit below has been closed for a long time. At t = 0, the switch is opened.
Calculate 𝑖 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 0.