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Introduction to Psychology Learning vs. Instincts

• Learning
• A process through which experience produces
lasting change in behavior or mental processes

• Habituation
• Learning not to respond to repeated presentation of
a stimulus (i.e., reduced response w/ repetition)

• Instincts
Module 11. Learning & Behaviorism • Motivated behaviors that have a strong innate basis
Sarah Carton, Ph.D.

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Learning Classical Conditioning

Mere Exposure Effect
Basic form of learning in which a stimulus that
• Learned preference for stimuli to which we have produces an innate reflex becomes associated with
been previously exposed (familiarity preference) a previously neutral stimulus, which then acquires
the power to elicit essentially the same response
Behavioral Learning
• Forms of learning that can be described in
terms of stimuli and responses
• Classical Conditioning & Operant Conditioning

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Basic Features of
Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus
• Neutral Stimulus (UCS)

• Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response

prior to learning Unconditioned
Response (UCR)

• Acquisition
• Initial learning stage in classical conditioning Conditioned Stimulus
(CS)
• Conditioned response (CR) becomes elicited by the
conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned Response
(CR)

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The Essentials of Classical The Essentials of Classical

Conditioning Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus The stimulus that elicits an Unconditioned Stimulus
(UCS) unconditioned response (UCS)

Unconditioned Unconditioned Response evoked by an unconditioned

Response (UCR) Response (UCR)
stimulus without prior learning

Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Stimulus

(CS) (CS)

Conditioned Response Conditioned Response

(CR) (CR)

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The Essentials of Classical The Essentials of Classical

Conditioning Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Stimulus
(UCS) (UCS)

Unconditioned Unconditioned
Response (UCR) Response (UCR)

Conditioned Stimulus A previously neutral stimulus that Conditioned Stimulus

(CS) comes to elicit a conditioned response (CS)

A response elicited by a previously

Conditioned Response Conditioned Response
(CR) (CR) neutral stimulus that became associated
with the conditioned stimulus

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Classical Conditioning

Extinction
• Weakening of a conditioned response in the
absence of an unconditioned stimulus

Spontaneous Recovery
• Unexpected reappearance of an extinguished
conditioned response after a time delay

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Acquisition, Extinction, and Classical Conditioning:

Spontaneous Recovery Generalization and Discrimination

Stimulus Generalization
• The extension of a learned response to stimuli
that are similar to the CS

Stimulus Discrimination
• Learning to respond to a particular stimulus
but not to similar stimuli

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Applications of Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

• Conditioned Fear (e.g., Little Albert)

In operant conditioning, the consequences
of behavior -- such as rewards and
• Counterconditioning (e.g., un-learning a fear or
phobia by re-conditioning with a new paired punishments -- influence the probability that
association evoking joy) the behavior will occur again.

• Conditioned Food Aversions (flavors/odors

associated with sickness or food poisoning lead
to long term food avoidance)

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Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning Law of Effect

Learning in which the probability of a response • Responses that produced desirable results would
or changed by its consequences—that is, by be learned or “stamped” into the organism.
the stimuli that follow the response
Reinforcer
• Condition (involving either the presentation or
removal of a stimulus) that occurs after a
response and strengthens that response

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Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism The Power of Reinforcement

• B.F. Skinner believed that the most powerful Positive Reinforcers
influences on behavior are its consequences. • Stimulus presented after a response; increases
• “The power of reinforcement” the probability of that response happening again
• Positive = add or apply
Operant Chamber
• Barlike apparatus that delivers reinforcers and
Negative Reinforcers
punishers contingent on an animal’s behavior • Removal of an unpleasant stimulus; increases the
probability of that response happening again
• Negative = subtract or remove

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Contingencies of Reinforcement: Schedules of Reinforcement

• Varying the timing and frequency of Ratio Schedules
reinforcement • Reinforcement depends on the number of correct
responses.
Continuous Reinforcement Interval Schedules
• Reinforcement schedule in which all correct
responses are reinforced • Reinforcement depends on the time interval
elapsed since the last reinforcement.
Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement
• Reinforcement schedule in which some, but not all, Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR)
correct responses are reinforced
Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Interval (VI)

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Schedules of Reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement

Reinforcement is contingent
Fixed Ratio (FR) on a certain, unchanging Fixed Ratio (FR) Reinforcement presented
number of responses. after a certain number of
Variable Ratio Variable Ratio
responses, but that number
(VR) e.g., factory workers getting paid (VR) varies from trial to trial
after every ten cases of product are
completed e.g., lottery, slot machine pay-offs
Fixed Interval Fixed Interval
(FI) (FI)

Variable Interval Variable Interval

(VI) (VI)

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Schedules of Reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Ratio (FR)

Variable Ratio reinforcement presented Variable Ratio

(VR) after a certain fixed amount (VR)
of time, regardless of number Reinforcement presented
Fixed Interval of responses Fixed Interval
(FI) (FI)
after a certain amount of
e.g., weekly or monthly paychecks time, but that amount varies
Variable Interval Variable Interval from trial to trial
(VI) (VI) e.g., random visits from the boss, who
delivers praise

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The Power of Reinforcement in

Cumulative Frequency of Responding “Shaping” Desired Behaviors

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The Power of Reinforcement

The Power of Reinforcement

Primary Reinforcers
• Reinforcers that fulfill basic biological needs or
desires (“drives”), such as food and sex, that have
an innate value to an organism

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The Power of Reinforcement Punishment

Secondary Reinforcers Punishment
• Conditioned Stimuli, such as money or tokens, • An aversive consequence of specific behavior that
that acquire their reinforcing value (or power) by diminishes the strength of the response it follows
a learned association with primary reinforcers • Decreases likelihood of the behavior recurring

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Reinforcement increases the likelihood that a behavior will reoccur.

Punishment decreases the likelihood that a behavior will reoccur. How Does Cognitive Psychology
Explain Learning?

According to cognitive psychology,

some forms of learning must be explained
as changes in mental processes
rather than as changes in behavior alone.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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How Does Cognitive Psychology How Does Cognitive Psychology

Explain Learning? Explain Learning?

Insight Learning Latent Learning

• Cognitive learning, in which problem solving occurs by • Edward Tolman (1886-1959)
means of a sudden reorganization of perception • “Purposeful Behavior in Animals and Men” (c. 1932)
• Learning often occurs without any reinforcement and
without one knowing that learning took place
Cognitive Maps: Tolman • Hungry animals figure out a task quickly to get to the
• A mental representation of a physical or mental “space” food (rats navigate maze; chimps reach the banana)
• Support that learning was mental, not purely behavioral • Further support for cognitive explanation of learning
vs. the strict behavioral S-R explanation

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Latent Learning Observational Learning:

(model of Edward Tolman) Albert Bandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism

Observational Learning
• One form of cognitive learning
• New actions and behaviors are
acquired vicariously, after
watching others do something
and observing the outcome

• Hungry animals figure out a task quickly to get to

the food (rats navigate maze; chimps reach banana)

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