Post-Processing treatments of PLA and PLA wood composites.

PROJECT SUPERVISER:

Engr. Muhammad Shahzad

SUBMITTED BY:

Muhammad Abdullah 2021-IM-110

Syed Muhammad Awais Hyder 2021-im-111

Ahmad Yousaf 2021-IM-121

Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering

Rachna College of Engineering & Technology, Gujranwala
A Constituent College of the University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore
 Post-Processing treatments of PLA and PLA wood composites
Project Research Report Submitted to Rachna College of Engineering & Technology
Gujranwala ( A Constituent College of the University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore)
in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree award of
Bachelor of Science in Industrial & Manufacturing Engineering
By

Muhammad Abdullah 2021-IM-110

Syed Muhammad Awais Hyder 2021-im-111

Ahmad Yousaf 2021-IM-121

Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering

Rachna College of Engineering & Technology, Gujranwala
A Constituent College of the University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore
 Chapter No 1
Introduction
1. Additive Manufacturing
Additive manufacturing (AM), also known as 3D printing, is a process that uses a
digital 3D model to construct a three-dimensional object. The process involves
adding material together usually layer by layer, under computer control. Among
various 3D printing technologies fused deposition modeling (FDM) is widely
popular for its cost-effectiveness and ease of operation
Material Used And Method Used
 Polylactic acid (PLA) and PLA wood composites
 Fused Deposit Modeling

Potential Applications
Medical Applications
The most immediate clinical applications of 3D printing are for pre-surgical
planning, intra-operative guidance, and the production of custom implants
Aerospace and Defence
3D printing is used in the aerospace and defense industries to design, prototype,
and manufacture parts and components
Consumer Products
3D printing enables the creation of personalized and intricate products, such as
home décor items (lamps, vases) and jewelry, offering both customization and
precision.
Architectural Models
Architects and designers use 3D printing for scale models and prototyping,
providing accurate and detailed visualizations of designs and structures.
Automotive & Aerospace
To design and modify complex, organic shapes that would otherwise be too
difficult (often impossible) to produce using traditional manufacturing methods

2. Motivation
The motivation for this research stems from the increasing demand for eco-
friendly high-performance materials in industries such as construction, furniture,
and consumer goods. PLA wood composites offer the potential to meet these
demands by combining sustainability with functional versatility. However, the
variability in wood anatomy such as differences in lignin and cellulose content,
microstructural density, and fiber geometry directly influences the performance
of the composite during and after the 3D printing process.

3. Research Gap
1. Little work has been done on PLA based composites
2. Study the effect of different treatments performed on the filaments
3. Perform In-processing and Post-Processing Treatments
4. Need for optimizing degradation process for environmental benefits
5. Challenging in enhancing mechanical and thermal properties of composites
6. Most research papers target only limited printing parameters according to
their requirements but we focus on all parameters which affect the 3d
printed part. These parameters are infill density, nozzle temperature, layer
height, bed temperature, infill pattern, and printing speed

4. Research Objectives
 To analyze the impact of post-printing degradation mechanisms (hydrolytic,
thermal, enzymatic) on different types of wood-PLA composites.
 To analyze the impact of in-process printing & bed temperature on
different types of wood-PLA composite
5. Scope and Limitations

Scope:
The scope includes:
 Selection of hardwoods and softwoods based on their anatomical and
chemical properties.
 Investigation of in-process treatments such as adjustments in printing
speed, temperature, and infill patterns
 Exploration of post-processing methods, including natural treatments like
Hydrolytic(dilling in water) and Enzymetic (dum in soil) and Thermal
 Comprehensive evaluation of mechanical (tensile strength), thermal (heat
deflection temperature), and surface properties (roughness, texture).
Limitations:
 Equipment is restricted to FDM 3D printers and conventional post-
processing setups, which may limit the applicability of findings to other 3D
printing technologies.
 Long-term degradation analysis (e.g., hydrolytic, UV, and thermal
degradation) is limited to short-term laboratory experiments.
 The focus is primarily on mechanical and aesthetic properties, with limited
exploration of chemical interactions at the molecular level.

References
1. Abio Giudice, Raffaele Barbagall, Giovanna Fargione, A Design for Additive
Manufacturing approach based on process energy efficiency: electron beam
Melted components, Elsevier, 2020
2. M.A. Elsawy, K.H. Kim, J.W. Park, A. Deep, Hydrolytic degradation of
polylactic acid (PLA) and its composites, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 79
(2017) 1346–1352
3. Ahmad, M., Hayat, N. and Shah, F.H.(2015),“RapidDevelopment of complex
shaped customized products”, Journal of the Brazilian Society of
Mechanical Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 37 No. 1, pp.263-274
 Chapter No 2
Literature Review

Harris et al. (2021) developed a new material for 3D printing that's more resistant
to heat. They mixed three different types of plastic: polylactic acid (PLA),
polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene-graft-maleic anhydride (PE-g-MAH). The
goal was to make PLA stronger and less likely to break down when heated. The
researchers found that adding a small amount of PP helped to improve the overall
strength of the material without sacrificing its heat resistance. They also
discovered that the way the different plastics were combined was key to the
material's success. By minimizing chemical bonds between the plastics and
maximizing their physical interlocking, they were able to create a material that
was more stable under heat. Further testing showed that the material's
performance was influenced by the printing temperature. Higher temperatures
could lead to some breakdown of the material, so it's important to find the right
balance. Overall, this new material offers a promising solution for 3D printing
applications that require a material that can withstand high temperatures without
losing its structural integrity.[2]

Harris et al. (2022) produced a new type of plastic for 3D printing that's better at
resisting heat and moisture. They mixed three different kinds of plastic: polylactic
acid (PLA), polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene-graft-maleic anhydride (PE-g-
MAH). The goal was to make PLA stronger and more durable, especially in wet
conditions. The researchers found that by adding just a little bit of PP and PE-g-
MAH, they could significantly improve the plastic's resistance to heat and
moisture. They also discovered that the way the plastics were combined was
important. By minimizing chemical bonds between the plastics and maximizing
their physical interlocking, they were able to create a material that was more
stable and less likely to break down over [Link] they tested the new
material, they found that it was very resistant to moisture. Even after soaking it in
water for 45 days, the plastic didn't lose its strength. In fact, it actually became
slightly stronger. They also found that the material was able to withstand high
temperatures during the 3D printing process. Overall, this new plastic is a
promising option for 3D printing applications that need a material that can
withstand both heat and moisture. Its unique combination of properties makes it
a valuable tool for creating durable and eco-friendly products.[3]

Harris et al. (2022) fabricated a new type of plastic for 3D printing that's better for
the environment. They mixed two types of plastic: polylactic acid (PLA) and
polypropylene (PP). The goal was to make the plastic stronger and more durable,
but also break down naturally over time. They found that adding a small amount
of PP helped to make the plastic stronger without sacrificing its ability to
decompose. The way the two plastics were combined was also important. By
making sure they were tightly connected, the researchers were able to create a
material that was very resistant to soil and could last for a long time without
breaking [Link] new plastic is a good choice for 3D printing things that need to
be eco-friendly. It's strong and can withstand the heat of the 3D printing process.
It's also better for the environment because it breaks down naturally. This makes
it a great option for creating products that are both useful and sustainable.[4]

Lesaffre et al. (2017) explored how flame-retardant plastic made from polylactic
acid (FR-PLA) holds up over time when exposed to harsh conditions. They
simulated these conditions in the lab using three different scenarios; Heat and
Sunlight (like being left outside on a hot, sunny day).Heat and Moisture (like being
stored in a hot, humid bathroom).The Triple Threat (like being left outside in a
hot, humid jungle).They found that the worst case for the FR-PLA was the
combination of heat, sunlight, and moisture. This caused the plastic to degrade
the most. Even though the plastic degraded more under these harsh conditions,
its flame retardant properties actually improved. The researchers figured out why
this happens. Under different conditions, the plastic breaks down in different
ways. Sunlight breaks down the plastic through a process called photo-oxidation.
Moisture breaks down the plastic through hydrolysis. When all three factors are
present, both breakdown processes happen at the same time. The flame
retardant fillers in the plastic help protect it from sunlight damage and oxygen
exposure, but they can't stop moisture damage. Interestingly, the way the plastic
degrades and changes its viscosity (thickness and flow) actually helps it perform
better as a flame retardant. Additionally, the breakdown process seems to
influence the type of gases released when the plastic burns, further enhancing its
flame resistance. This research shows that how FR-PLA ages depends on a
complex interplay between the environment, the type of flame retardant used,
and how the plastic itself breaks down. While aging can damage the plastic, it can
also improve its flame retardancy under certain conditions. Understanding these
factors is key to designing and using FR-PLA materials effectively.[5]

Manian et al. (2021) explored the potential of flax and hemp fibers as a more eco-
friendly alternative to synthetic materials. These natural fibers can be extracted
from plants and used in a variety of products. To obtain flax or hemp fibers, the
plants undergo a process called retting, which softens the plant structure. After
retting, the non-fiber parts are removed, leaving behind the pure fiber bundles.
Finally, lignin, a substance that gives the fibers strength but can also make them
less flexible, is removed. Once extracted, flax and hemp fibers can be used to
create strong and durable materials for things like composites, and they can also
be made into clothing. Compared to synthetic materials like cotton, flax and hemp
are considered more sustainable because they require less water and pesticides
to grow. However, there are some challenges to using flax and hemp fibers. They
only make up a small portion of the plant, limiting their production. Additionally,
flax and hemp are often grown for their seeds, which can compete with fiber
production for land. To address these challenges, researchers are working on
developing new types of flax and hemp that can produce both fibers and seeds.
They are also exploring more efficient and sustainable cultivation methods. With
further research and development, flax and hemp could become more widely
used as a sustainable alternative to traditional materials.[6]

Arnič et al. (2021) investigates how European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) adapts to
local climatic conditions by analyzing tree ring width (TRW) and vessel features.
They looked at three groups of trees in different areas with different weather
patterns. They measured the width of the tree rings, which can tell us about how
the tree grew each year. They also looked at the size and number of tiny tubes in
the tree, called vessels, which help the tree transport water and nutrients. The
researchers found that the trees in different areas had different growth patterns.
Some trees grew faster or slower depending on how wet or dry the year was. The
size and number of vessels in the trees also changed depending on the weather.
Trees that grew in colder areas with less sun tended to have smaller vessels and
fewer of them. The study also showed that the trees were able to adapt to
extreme weather events. Even when there was a drought, the trees could still
survive and grow, although their growth rate slowed down. Overall, the
researchers found that the climate has a big impact on how beech trees grow.
Different weather patterns can affect the width of the tree rings and the structure
of the wood. This information can be helpful for understanding how forests might
change in the future as the climate continues to warm.[7]

Tao et al. (2017) created a new material for 3D printing that mixes wood flour
with plastic. This new material can be printed using a 3D printer, and it has some
interesting properties. When wood flour is added to the plastic, it makes the
material stronger and gives it a different texture. It also makes the plastic slightly
more heat-resistant. However, it doesn't change the melting point of the plastic.
This new material could be a good option for 3D printing because it offers new
possibilities for creating objects with different properties. It might also be better
for the environment because it uses wood, a renewable resource. However, more
research is needed to improve this material. Scientists are working on finding the
best amount of wood flour to add and how to make the wood and plastic bond
together better. With more research, this material could become a valuable
option for 3D printing.[8]

Copinet et al. (2004) pointed out the study on the effect of ultraviolet (UV) light
(315 nm) temperature, and relative humidity (RH) on the biodegradation of
polylactic acid (PLA) films. Characterization methods which were employed in the
study include mechanical tests, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
analysis to estimate molecular weight, glass transition temperature and
mechanical properties at varied environments of temperature (30, 45 and 60°C)
and relative humidity levels (30%, 50%, and 100%). The study pointed out that at
higher temperature and RH both the parameters accelerated the degradation and
in the presence of UV light it even enhanced the degradation rate. The combined
effect of the above factors was that the forces operating to dismantle PLA’s
structure were achieved faster. In view of this, the study reveals that
temperature, RH, and uv light affect PLA degradation; uv light is shown to
accelerate the process. [9]

Ho & Pometto (1999) enhanced the effect of electron-beam irradiation at a dose

of 33 kGy and ultraviolet (UV) light at 365 nm on polylactic acid (PLA) plastic films.
In this context, the molecular weight, stress at break, and percentage elongation
before and after treatment were considered to be useful parameters for study.
The effects of irradiation and UV exposure. Values of these properties precised in
the photography decrease significantly during the exposure both – to irradiation
and UV impact while the increase in degradation rates was higher, induced by
impacts of UV light. Although, electron-beam irradiation resulted into substantial
physical changes as compared to UV applied to each sample, the results of the UV
light exposure showed high efficiency in the acceleration of the degradation
process in the mechanical properties of PLA. A more important factor than
irradiation is concluded to be the UV light in the process of PLA degradation in
environment. [10]

Harris, M. J. , Petrie, K. , & Napper, R. (2019). The influence of in-process thermal

treatment on the mechanical properties of parts made of polylactic acid (PLA)
printed by fused deposition modeling (FDM) was investigated by Harris et al.
(2019). Thermal treatments were given during the printing process while the
mechanical attributes of the printed components were some of the parameters
that were assessed. The analyses showed that in-process thermal treatment
enhanced the mechanical properties of the PLA parts and decreased residual
stress, thereby increasing the strength of the part. As a result of this improvement
in mechanical properties the parts become more useful for practical use.
Consequently, the research establishes that includes thermal treatment in the
FDM process enhances the mechanical properties of PLA components. [11]

The paper discusses the development of a novel blend of polylactic acid (PLA)
with high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and polyethylene graft maleic anhydride
(PE-g-MAH) designed for enhanced thermal, soil, and water resistance in additive
manufacturing applications. By using a custom-built pellet 3D printer, the blend’s
properties are preserved without the thermal degradation typical of filament-
based printing. Key analyses, including tensile strength tests, Fourier transform
infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC),
thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), were
performed to confirm the stability and molecular interactions of the [Link]
study found that the PLA/HDPE/PE-g-MAH blend exhibited superior thermal
stability and resistance to environmental degradation mechanisms compared to
pure PLA. The blend maintained high mechanical strength under thermal aging,
soil burial, and water exposure, showing less mass loss and structural
degradation. FTIR and DSC confirmed that the blend achieved a combination of
chemical grafting and physical interlocking, enhancing its resistance to
degradation. This research offers a sustainable, high-performance material for 3D
printing applications requiring stability under various environmental conditions.
[12]
This study examines polylactic acid (PLA) composites filled with wood fibers, 3D-
printed using fused deposition modeling (FDM), to evaluate their mechanical,
thermal, and biodegradation properties. PLA filaments containing 30% wood fiber
were printed at varying infill rates (10-100%) to explore how infill affects decay
resistance and strength. Thermal analysis revealed that wood-filled PLA had lower
thermal stability due to the wood content, which is more thermally degradable
than pure PLA. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed voids in the wood-
PLA filament, likely due to moisture in the wood [Link] study subjected
printed samples to a 16-week fungal decay test with brown-rot and white-rot
fungi. Minimal weight loss and strength reduction were observed across infill
rates, demonstrating the composites' resistance to fungal decay and suitability for
potential exterior applications. Mechanical tests showed that the flexural
modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) increased with higher
infill, resulting in denser structures. The results indicate that wood-filled PLA
composites are decay-resistant yet have limited biodegradability, making them
suitable for durable, exterior applications while maintaining environmental
sustainability.[13] This study investigates wood-plastic composites (WPCs) made
from polylactic acid (PLA) with Tanalith E-treated wood flour. Tanalith E, a copper-
based preservative, was used to enhance the composite's durability, making it
more resistant to moisture and fungal decay for outdoor applications. Maleic
anhydride grafted polyethylene (MAPE) was added as a coupling agent to improve
compatibility between PLA and the treated wood flour.

Key findings include:

Density and Voids: Untreated wood flour composites showed higher density and
lower void content compared to treated ones. Treated wood flour had increased
voids due to lower bonding with PLA.

Water Absorption: Treated wood composites absorbed more water than

untreated composites, likely due to copper's effect on bonding.

Mechanical Properties: The best mechanical performance was observed at 40%

treated wood content. Higher wood content led to decreased mechanical
strength due to weak filler-matrix bonding.

Thermal Stability: Treated composites had lower thermal stability, with increased
weight loss at higher wood content.
Fungal Resistance: Tanalith E treatment reduced fungal decay, especially with
lower wood content. This treatment makes the composite viable for long-term
outdoor use due to increased durability.

Overall, Tanalith E-treated wood flour-PLA composites show promise for

environmentally resilient applications, particularly in exterior construction where
biodegradability and mechanical durability are essential.[13]

The article, titled *Determination of the True Density and the Filler Content of
Pinus sylvestris Wood Particles in Polymer-Wood-Composites*, presents a
method to accurately measure the density and filler content of natural fibers,
specifically *Pinus sylvestris* (Scots pine) wood particles in polymer-wood
composites. Traditional methods, such as bulk density measurements or
calcination, often yield inaccurate results due to the porous nature of wood
fibers. To address this, the study introduces a technique that involves mixing
wood fibers into plastic melts and molding under high pressure, which eliminates
air gaps in the wood structure and provides a more precise density
[Link] this approach, the authors found that the true density of
Scots pine heartwood chips combined with a polylactic acid (PLA) polymer was
approximately 1.4009 g/cm³. This more accurate density measurement allows for
better determination of wood filler content in recycled composites. The study
further confirms the effectiveness of this method through computer tomography,
which visualizes the compression of wood fibers in the polymer matrix. The
results highlight the potential of this technique for sustainable polymer-wood
composites, emphasizing its usefulness for recycling processes and accurate filler
content analysis in various applications.[14]

References:

[2] M. Harris, J. Potgieter, H. Mohsin, J. Q. Chen, S. Ray, and K. M. Arif, "Partial

polymer blend for fused filament fabrication with high thermal stability,"
Polymers, vol. 13, no. 19, p. 3353, 2021.
[3] M. Harris et al., "Partial biodegradable blend for fused filament fabrication:
in-process thermal and post-printing moisture resistance," Polymers, vol.
14, no. 8, p. 1527, 2022.
[4] M. Harris et al., "Partial biodegradable blend with high stability against
biodegradation for fused deposition modeling," Polymers, vol. 14, no. 8, p.
1541, 2022.
[5] N. Lesaffre, S. Bellayer, H. Vezin, G. Fontaine, M. Jimenez, and S. Bourbigot,
"Recent advances on the ageing of flame retarded PLA: Effect of UV-light
and/or relative humidity," Polymer Degradation and Stability, vol. 139, pp.
143-164, 2017.
[6] A. P. Manian, M. Cordin, and T. Pham, "Extraction of cellulose fibers from
flax and hemp: a review," Cellulose, vol. 28, no. 13, pp. 8275-8294, 2021.
[7] D. Arnič, J. Gričar, J. Jevšenak, G. Božič, G. von Arx, and P. Prislan, "Different
wood anatomical and growth responses in European beech (Fagus sylvatica
L.) at three forest sites in Slovenia," Frontiers in plant science, vol. 12, p.
669229, 2021.
[8] Y. Tao, H. Wang, Z. Li, P. Li, and S. Q. Shi, "Development and application of
wood flour-filled polylactic acid composite filament for 3D printing,"
Materials, vol. 10, no. 4, p. 339, 2017.
[9] Effects of ultraviolet light (315 nm), temperature and relative humidity on the
degradation of polylactic acid plastic films Alain Copinet a,*, Celine
Bertrand a , Stephanie Govindin a , Veronique Coma b , Yves Couturier a
[10] Effects of Electron-Beam Irradiation and Ultraviolet Light (365 nm) on
Polylactic Acid Plastic Films1 Kai-Lai G. Ho2 and Anthony L. Pometto III2,3
[11] M. Harris et al., “In-process thermal treatment of polylactic acid in fused
deposition modelling.”
[12] Sun et al., 2020. "Polylactic acid/wood composites," BioResources
[13] Characterization of tanalith E treated wood flour filled polylactic acid
composites Mohammed Dalua , Ali Temiza , Ertuğrul Altuntaş b , Gaye Köse
Demirela , Mustafa Aslan
[14] Determination of the true density and the filler content of pinus sylvestris
wood particles in polymer-wood-composites Matthias Bruchmüller 1 | Florian
Puch1,2
Methods Findings Research Gap

Improved heat resistance and

Mixing and testing
strength Current FFF materials lack thermal degradation re
blends often require high levels of non-biodegrad

Improved heat and moisture Previous PLA/PP blends have not been tested for
Mixing and testing
resistance against moisture-based degradation, a critical fac
scale applications.

Improved durability and Existing biodegradable blends are not evaluated f

Mixing and testing
biodegradability biodegradation and often contain high percentag
biodegradable polymers, reducing environmental

Simulated exposure in the lab using

three different scenarios; Heat and
Sunlight (like being left outside on
Degradation under heat, sunlight,
a hot, sunny day).Heat and
and moisture. Improved flame
Moisture (like being stored in a hot,
retardancy.
humid bathroom).The Triple Threat
(like being left outside in a hot, Limited understanding of how different accelerate
humid jungle). scenarios (temperature, UV-light, and humidity) a
flame-retardant properties of PLA.

Extraction and testing Potential for sustainable materials Lack of comprehensive comparisons of retting, de
delignification processes and their impact on fiber
from flax and hemp.

Trees adapt to local climatic Insufficient data on intra-annual variability of xyle

Tree ring and vessel analysis
conditions climate variability and extreme weather condition
different beech populations.

Detailed characterization of WF/PLA composi

for 3D printing
Improved strength, texture, and heat Successfully demonstrated FDM printing capa
Mixing and testing
resistance % wood flour content
Created a pathway for expanding biomass mat
printing applications
 Chapter No 3
Methodology
This methodology report proposes the following materials and methods, which
will be utilized and implemented in the upcoming practical phases of this research
project, in order to investigate the research questions and achieve the project’s
objectives.

1. Materials and Equipment

The materials and equipment used include:

 Polylactic Acid (PLA): A biodegradable thermoplastic polymer, used as the

primary matrix material.
 Wood Fillers: Processed wood particles in powdered form with an 8:2 blend
ratio (PLA:Wood), chosen for enhanced mechanical properties.
 3D Printer: Prusa MK3, an FDM-based 3D printer with advanced precision
and reliability.
 Slicing Software: PrusaSlicer, used for model slicing and parameter
optimization, ensuring consistent layer deposition and toolpath generation.

Post-Processing Equipment

 A humidifier for ambient humidity control.

 UV light sources for controlled degradation studies.
 Soil and water baths for post-processing treatments.
 Testing machines for tensile, flexural, and hardness evaluations (e.g.,
Universal Testing Machine, Shore Durometer).
2. Experimental Design
The study investigates the effects of critical 3D printing parameters on the
mechanical properties of PLA- wood composites.
Factors and Levels:

 Nozzle Temperature: 190 °C, 200 °C, 210 °C

 Layer Thickness: 0.2 mm, 0.3 mm.
 Raster Angle: 0°, 45°, 90°.
 Infill Density: 50%, 75%

Design of Experiments:

A full factorial experimental design was implemented to evaluate individual

factors and their interactions systematically.

Number of Replicates:

Three replicates were printed for each combination of parameters to ensure

reliability and reproducibility.

3. Post-Processing Treatment
Post-processing treatments were conducted to simulate environmental
exposure and enhance mechanical characteristics:
 Hydrolytic Treatment
 Thermal Treatment
 Soil Enzymatic Degradation

4. Mechanical Testing Evaluation

Mechanical properties of the PLA-wood composites were assessed using
the following tests:

Universal Testing Machine (UTM):

 The UTM evaluates the mechanical properties of materials under tension,
compression, or bending. It is critical for determining tensile strength,
modulus of elasticity, and flexural strength. Common tests performed
include tensile (ASTM D638) and bending (ASTM D790) tests.

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR):

FTIR identifies the chemical composition of materials by analyzing the
absorption of infrared light, revealing molecular bonds and functional
groups. It is essential for studying chemical modifications and surface
treatments.
Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA):
TGA monitors weight changes in a material as a function of temperature or
time, providing insights into thermal degradation and composition
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM):
SEM generates high-resolution images of material surfaces, enabling the
examination of morphology, porosity, and fracture behavior.

5. Data Analysis

Statistical analysis was conducted to ensure robust and meaningful

interpretation of the mechanical testing results:
Descriptive Statistics:
Mean, standard deviation, and variance were calculated for each
mechanical property to establish data consistency.
Inferential Statistics:
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed to identify the statistical
significance of printing parameters (e.g., nozzle temperature, layer
thickness) and their interactions
A Tukey’s post-hoc test was used for pairwise comparisons of means when
ANOVA results showed significance.
Regression Analysis:
Multiple linear regression models were developed to predict mechanical
properties (e.g., tensile strength, flexural modulus) based on the
experimental parameters.
Correlation Analysis:
Pearson’s correlation coefficients were calculated to assess the strength of
relationships between printing parameters and observed mechanical
properties.

Software Used:
Statistical analysis was performed using SOLIDWORKS, providing advanced
visualization techniques, such as box plots, scatter plots, and contour maps,
for understanding parameter effects.