VISUAL WALKTHROUGH

INTRODUCTION
Each chapter begins with an
Introduction giving an overview of
Geodetic surveying consists of precisely measuring positions on the earth’s
surface, of a system of widely separated points. The positions are determined the chapter as well as its scope.
both relatively, in terms of the length and azimuths of the lines joining them, and
absolutely, in terms of the coordinates—latitude, longitude, and elevation above
mean sea level. These points (of observation) form the control points (stations) to
which topographic, hydrographic, engineering and other surveys may be referred
so as to localise the error between the geodetic stations.
In geodetic surveys, the horizontal control is established by precise traversing
or triangulation and the latter will be discussed in Chapter 2. To establish vertical
control there are two methods: precise levelling and trigonometric levelling. Precise
levelling has already been discussed in Surveying Vol. I, Chapter 6. It is similar
to spirit levelling but is carried out with greater refinement of instruments and
techniques.
Trigonometrical levelling may be defined as the process of determining the
relative elevations of different stations from observed vertical angles and known
distances—either horizontal or geodetic lengths at mean sea level. When the
horizontal distance between the points of interest is small, either the corrections
for curvature and refraction are neglected or are applied linearly to the calculated
difference in elevation. This is applicable for plane surveying and this method of
trigonometrical levelling is discussed in Surveying Vol. 1, Chapter 6. However,
when distances are large, the instrument station is located at the centre of the area
to observe the vertical angles outwards from this point. In this case, it is usual to
apply corrections for curvature and refraction in angular measures directly to the
observed vertical angles and the procedure is described in the present chapter.
The measurement of vertical angles between triangulation stations is usually
undertaken at the same time as that of horizontal angles. The concurrent observation
of the vertical angles alongwith the horizontal angles may prove to be economical,
and for that reason it may be convenient to deal with the determination of height
by the observation of vertical angles, rather than by precise levelling. However, the
method of trigonometrical levelling is less accurate than precise (spirit) levelling 352 Surveying
in flat terrains. In mountainous regions and rugged terrains, the method is of great
value, and the results are comparatively more accurate.

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Figures
Figures have been used to
describe the instrument details for
visualisation in simplified ways.

A view of the intersection is shown in Fig. 9.5(e). For a user on the earth’s
surface, it is apparent that the lower point will be the true position. However, users
that are above the earth’s surface may employ measurements from satellites at
negative elevation angles. This complicates the determination of an unambiguous
solution. Airborne/spaceborne receiver solutions may be above or below the

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 Visual Walkthrough xvii

270 Surveying

the necessary elements of the image by enhancing the statistical characteristics

of image data such as individual bands or combination of band values that carry
information concerning systematic variation within the scene; feature extraction
should not be got confused with the geographical features visible on the image.
Once the feature extraction is over the analyst can work with the image comprising
of desired channels or bands.

This operation is often termed as preprocessing since it normally precedes further

manipulation and analysis of the image data to extract specific information.

UP-TO-DATE Distortions or degradations in the image stem from the image acquisition process.
Therefore, the aim of image rectification and restoration is to correct the image

INFORMATION
data and is accomplished by offsetting problems with the band data by recalculating
the DN values. The factors that affect are the digital image acquisition type—
digital camera, along-track scanner, across-track scanner; platform—airborne vs.
satellite; and total field of view. The preprocessing operation attempts to correct

Latest development of electronics- Triangulation 41

or compensate the remotely sensed data for errors such as radiometric errors—
removal of sensor or atmospheric noise to represent ground conditions more
accurately, i.e., to improve image fidelity by correcting for data loss, removing
based equipments and electronic
In Fig. 2.14, let h = height of station A above datum, h = height of station
1
B above datum, h = height of line of sight at the obstruction, R = 2S = distance
2 haze; and then geometric distortions—converting data to ground coordinates by
removal of distortions from sensor geometry, enabling mapping relative to data
techniques h =of1 (h measurements 1
+ h ) + (h – h )
X are (1 2m)
between stations A and B, and = zenith distance between A and B. Then
– (S – X ) cosec 2 2 2
layers. Once the errors are removed, the data is said to be restored to its original
condition; the correct values are never known. Further, the attempt to correct
2 1 2 1

described. 2 h h 2 2 2
S
1 2m
1
2
2R the data may itself introduce errors. However, all these corrections might not
be required in every case and will depend upon the nature of information to be
where cosec =1+ 1 and = 0.06735 extracted from the data.
2S 2R

When the image data contains errors in the measured brightness values of the
pixels, it limits the ability of the analyst to visually interpret or quantitatively
process and analyse the images. The potential sources of errors are: periodic drift or
malfunctioning of a detector; electronic interference between sensor components;
and intermittent disruptions in data transmission and recording. Consequently, the
affects are: (i) a difference in the relative distribution of brightness over an image
in a given band than that in a ground scene and (ii) distortion of the relative
brightness of a single pixel from band to band compared with spectral reflectance
character of the corresponding region of the ground.
It, therefore, becomes necessary to apply the radiometric corrections—detector
response calibration, atmospheric correction, sun elevation correction, and earth-
sun distance correction (the error due to the detector response influences the
An observer standing on the deck of a ship just sees a lighthouse most)—by modifying DN values to account for noise. The correction involves a
top with his eye at a height of 9 m. The top of the lighthouse is 64 m above m.s.l.
Find the distance of the observer from the lighthouse. Examples
rearrangement of the DN in an image so that all areas have the same relationship
between the DN and either radiance or back-scatter.
Refer to Fig. 2.15. Detector within a sensor has a curvilinear
Let, AO = D1 and BO = D2. Examples help readers to relate
response to radiance and backscatter. Radiance is measure of the amount of
EM radiation leaving or arriving at a point on surface, whereas backscatter is
This is a problem of curvature and refraction.
We know that combined correction = 0.0673D2 and apply the chapter content to
Hence, 9 = 0.0673 AO2
9.00
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or AO = = 11.56 km
0.0673

64
and BO = = 30.83 km
0.0673
Hence, the distance between the observer and the lighthouse is Aerial Survey 219

= 11.56 + 30.83 = 42.39 km 5.23 Two consecutive photographs were taken with a camera of focal length 37.5 cm,
at a height of 7200 m. The overlap was exactly half and the prints were 22.5 cm
22.5 cm. The height was same for both the exposures and the aircraft flew on
even peel with no drift. The ground was flat at approximately 2500 m above m.s.l.
Determine the scale of the photograph and length of the air base.
[Ans. 1 cm = 125 m, 1.41 km]
5.24 An aircraft was flying 2300 m above a cliff, the difference in parallax between
whose top and bottom was 0.62 mm. Determine the height of the cliff, the base on
the photograph measured was 50 mm. [Ans. 28.52 m]
5.25 Explain why the heights of buildings, trees, etc., appear to be exaggerated when a
pair of vertical air photographs is viewed stereoscopically.
5.26 What is meant by stereophotography? Two distant objects, at the left and
right of photothedolite line of sight, make an angle of 47° on the instrument
SD-II_02.indd 41 3/8/2013 12:11:25 PM station. In the positive print, they are seen to be 70 mm left and 60 mm right of
the photo centre. Calculate the focal length of the camera lens.
[Ans. f = 149.35 mm]

OBJECTIVE-TYPE 5.1 A spatial view can be obtained with naked eyes for a distance up to

QUESTIONS (a) 240 m (b) 640 m (c) 1140 m

5.2 Which of the following is an appropriate scale of an air photograph?
(a) 1 cm = 10 m (b) 1 cm = 100 m
(d) 1540 m

(c) 1 cm = 500 m (d) 1 cm = 1000 m

Objective-type questions are help- 5.3 The focal length of an aerial camera is 12.5 cm and the exposure station was 2500 m
above the datum. The scale of the photograph is

ful in the preparation for various (a) 1 cm = 200 m

(c) 1:2000
(b) 1 cm = 31 250 m
(d) 1:3125
5.4 An aircraft is flying at a ground speed of 180 km/h. The focal length
competitive examinations. of the camera is 150 mm. The longitudinal coverage of the ground is
900 m. Which one is the exposure interval.
(a) 18 s (b) 50 s (c) 750 s (d) 270 s
5.5 If the distance of the image of a point A from the isocentre, on a tilted photograph,
is 15.6 mm and the same distance is equal to 14.9 mm on a vertical photograph,
tilt distortion is
(a) 2.9 mm (b) 0.007 mm (c) 0.7 mm (d) 0.29 mm
5.6 A vertical photograph was taken at an altitude of 1500 m above M.S.L. If the focal
length of the camera is 20 m, the scale of photograph for a terrain lying at an elevation
of 500 m is
(a) 1:50 (b) 1:100 (c) 1:1000 (d) 1:25
5.7 Two consecutive photographs were taken with an overlap of 55% and
the print size was 22.5 cm 22.5 cm for both the photographs. All
the conditions were same and the scale of the photograph was 1 cm = 200 m. The
length of the air base is
(a) 0.2025 km (b) 2.5 km (c) 2.25 km (d) 2.025 km
5.8 A vertical photograph of a chimney was taken from an elevation of
500 m above M.S.L. The elevation of the base of the chimney was 250 m. If the relief
displacement of the top of chimney was 51.4 mm and the radial distance of the
image of the top of the chimney was 110 mm, the height of the chimney is
(a) 233.64 m (b) 133.2 m (c) 116.82 m (d) 58.41 m

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 Global Positioning System (GPS) 359

where, R is the actual range between receiver and satellite, is the wavelength,
N is the number of complete wavelengths between satellite and receiver, and is
the part wave length.
For EDM the modulation wavelength on the carrier wave is changed to establish
two or more data sets, allowing N to be eliminated from the calculations. With

xviii Visual Walkthrough satellite observations this is not possible because the satellite is continuously
moving, although two different carrier waves L1 and L2 are being transmitted
simultaneously. In order to make use of the carrier waves it is necessary to strip
off the binary code information, and there are various techniques for this, some
requiring knowledge of C/A and/or P code, which is not possible with anti-
spoofing (AS) active. The most common technique is squaring (no knowledge of
ranging codes is required), which has the added advantage of effectively doubling
the carrier frequency, hence halving the wavelength and allowing the millimetre
accuracy on the measurement. Unfortunately, squaring destroys the data transmitted
on the carrier that gives the satellite location and hence for accuracy it has to be
used with calculated data for the satellite’s positions.

If the world was like a laboratory with perfect laboratory conditions, basic GPS
would be a lot more accurate. Unfortunately, it is not so, and has plenty of
opportunities for a radio-based system that spans the entire planet to get fouled
up. Inaccuracies in GPS signals come from the variety of sources (Fig. 9.7), like
satellite clocks, imperfect orbits and especially from the signal’s trip through the
earth’s atmosphere. Since these inaccuracies are variable, it is hard to predict what
they will be in order to correct for them. Although, these errors are small, but to
get the kind of accuracies some critical positioning jobs require, all the errors,
no matter how minor, are to be minimised. What is needed is a way to measure

FIELD PROBLEMS the actual errors as they happen. The error sources can be classified into three
groups, namely satellite-related errors, propagation-medium related errors, and

Applications of the principles are

given to solve field problems.

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Appendix

APPENDICES
Appendices contain supplementary
matter helpful in enriching the
text.
1 mile = 1.6093 km
= 8 furlongs
= 1760 yards
= 5280 ft
= 63360 in.
1 furlong = 0.2012 km
= 220 yards
1 yard = 0.9144 m
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 in. = 25.4000 mm
1 km = 0.6214 miles
= 1093.6106 yards 84 Surveying
1m = 1.0936 yards
= 3.2808 ft Let angle A be measured three times by the repetition method
= 39.36998 in.
1 mm = 0.0394 in. A Weight
1 nautical mile = 6080 ft 48°20 8 3
= 1853.1886 m 48°20 10 2

Quantification
1 cable = 100 fathoms
48°20 12 3
1 fathom = 6 ft
= 1.8288 m Sum of the weights = 3 + 2 + 3 = 8
1 bar = 105 N/m2 Weighted arithmetic mean
Quantification of instrumental
1 knot
1° latitude
=
=
1 nautical mile
111.21 km = 48°20 +
8
1
× (8 × 3 + 10 × 2 + 12 × 3)

errors are explained with illustra-

1° longitude =
=
111.21 km (at equator)
0 (at poles)
= 48°20 10
Weight of the weighted arithmetic mean 48°20 10 is 8.
1h = 15° 3. If two or more quantities are added algebraically, the weight of the result
tive figures.
1 min
1s
=
=
15
15
is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
weights.
For example,

Angle Weight
= 46°30 30 3
= 24°42 20 2

1 6
Weight of + (71°12 50 ) = =
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3 2
1 6
Weight of – (21°28 10 ) = =
1 1 5
3 2
4. If a quantity is multiplied by a factor, the weight of the product is equal to
the weight of that quantity divided by the square of the factor.
For example, if angle = 32°12 12 and weight = 2, then
2 2
weight of 3 (96°36 36 ) = 2
3 9
5. If a quantity is divided by a factor, the weight of the result equals the weight
of that quantity multiplied by the square of that factor.
For example, if angle = 41°31 15 and weight = 2, then
weight of (13°50 45 ) = 2 × 32 = 18
3
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resulting 12:49:34 PM
equation is equal to the reciprocal of the weight of the equation.