MODULE - 7 Chemistry

Chemistry of Organic
Compounds

29
Notes
ALDEHYDES, KETONES AND
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

In the last lesson, you studied about organic compounds containing functional groups
having carbon-oxygen single bond. There are other classes of organic compounds in which
the functional group contains the carbon- oxygen double bond. The examples of these
classes of compounds being carbonyl compounds such as aldehydes and ketones as well
as carboxylic acids and their derivatives. These organic compounds are very important
both in the industry and in the synthesis of other organic compounds. Therefore, their
study forms an important part of the organic chemistry. Let us study the chemistry of
these classes of compounds in detail.

Objectives
After reading this lesson, you should be able to
 give IUPAC names of aldehydes and ketones;
 describe the general methods of preparation of aldehydes and ketones;
 discuss the trends in physical properties of the aldehydes and ketones in the light of
the polar nature of the carbonyl group;
 explain important reactions exhibited by aldehydes and ketones;
 distinguish between aldehydes and ketones on the basis of certain reactions and tests
based on them;
 give IUPAC names of carboxylic acids;
 explain general methods of preparation of carboxylic acids;
 discuss the physical properties and their trends for simple monocarboxylic acids;
 describe important reactions exhibited by carboxylic acids;
 explain the preparation and some interconversion reactions of carboxylic acid
derivatives, and
 highlight the importance of aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids.

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 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids MODULE - 7
29.1 Aldehydes and Ketones Chemistry of Organic
Compounds
You have some familiarity with these classes of compounds from previous lessons. These
O

—
compounds are also referred to as carbonyl compounds and have —C— functionality
present in them. These compounds exist widely in nature and are responsible for the
flavour and aroma of many foods. They are also important industrially both as reagents in Notes
synthesis and as solvents.

Aldehydes have at least one hydrogen atom bonded to the carbonyl group, the other group
may be either a hydrogen or an alkyl (or aryl) group. In ketones, the carbonyl group is
bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups. The two groups bonded to a ketone may be similar or
different resulting in a symmetrical or an unsymmatrical ketone, respectively.

You must be familiar with vanilin and camphor. Their structures are given below. You can
see that they contain an aldehyde and a keto functional group, respectively.

29.1.1 Nomenclature of Aldehydes and Ketones

In the IUPAC system of nomenclature, aliphatic aldehydes are named as alkanals. The
final -e in the name of the corresponding alkane is substituted by -al.
Some common examples of aldehydes and their names are given below :

Note that when the -CHO group is attached to a ring, then the compound is called a
carbaldehyde.

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 MODULE - 7 Chemistry

Chemistry of Organic Remember that the carbonyl carbon of the aldehydes is present at the end of the chain and
Compounds is assigned 1 position. Therefore, it is not necessory to specify its position in the name of
the aldehyde. The examples given below illustrate this point.

Notes

Ketones are named as alkanones in the IUPAC namenclature. Their names are obtained
by replacing final -e in the name of alkane by -one. The carbon chain is numbered in such
a way that the carbonyl group gets the lowest number. Some examples of ketones are
mentioned below :

O
O O
CH3C CH3 CH3CH 2 CCH3
4 3 2 1
Propanone
(Acetone) Butan-2-one Cyclohexanone
(Ethyl methyl ketone)

O O
CH3 CH 2 C CH 2 CH3 CH3 CCH 2 CH = CH 2
5 4 3 2 1
Pentan-3-one Pent-4-en-2-one
(Diethyl ketone)

29.1.2 Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones

You have already studied most of the methods used in the synthesis of aldehydes and
ketones in the previous lesson. Let us now refresh them.
1. Oxidation of Primary and Secondary Alcohols
From the last lesson, you know that primary alcohols can be oxidised to aldehydes and
secondary alcohols can be oxidised to ketones.
2. Ozonolysis of Alkenes
This reaction has been discussed in lesson 26. The products obtained are aldehydes or
ketones depending upon the structure of the starting alkene.
3. Hydration of Alkynes
Hydration of alkynes can give an aldehyde or a ketone. Markovnikov’s hydration yields
ketones whereas anti-Markovnikov’s hydration gives aldehydes.
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 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids MODULE - 7
Chemistry of Organic
Compounds

Notes

You can go through the details of these reactions as discussed in lesson 26.
4. Friedal-Crafts Acylation
Aromatic ketones can be prepared by Friedel-Crafts acylation (alkanoylation) reaction.
One example of this reaction is given below:
O
1. CH 3 COOCOCH 3 , AlCl3 , CS2
CH3O CH3O C CH3
2. HCl, H 2 O

Similar acylation reaction using ethanoyl chloride was also discussed in lesson 26 under
the electrophilic substitution reactions of aromatic hydrocarbons.

29.1.3 Structure and Physical Properties

In both aldehydes and ketones, the carbonyl carbon and oxygen atoms are sp2 hybridised.
Therefore, the groups attached to the carbon atom and oxygen are present in a plane. This
is shown in Fig. 29.1.

Fig. 29.1 : The structure of the carbonyl functional group

You can see in the figure that a  -bond is formed by the overlap of p-orbitals of carbon
and oxygen atoms. The p-orbitals are present in a plane perpendicular to the plane of the
molecule. Note the presence of two lone pairs of electrons on oxygen atom.
You also know that oxygen is more electronegative than carbon. Hence, it attracts the
—
— — O bond ) resulting in its appriciable
electrons of the carbon-oxygen double bond ( — C
polarisation.
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 MODULE - 7 Chemistry

Chemistry of Organic
Compounds
The oxygen atom, thus, acquires a partial negative charge (  ) whereas the carbon atom
gets a partial positive charge (  ) . This polar nature of the carbonyl group makes the
oxygen atom nucleophilic and basic while the carbon atom becomes electrophilic. The
Notes physical properties and chemical reactions of aldehydes and ketones are a direct
consequence of this polarisation.
The dipole-dipole attraction between the molecules of aldehydes and ketones results in
their higher boiling points as compared to the hydrocarbons of similar molecular weight.
The physical properties of some aldehydes and ketones are given in Table 29.1.
Table 29.1 Physical properties of some representative aldehydes and ketones

Compound m.p. b.p. Water Solubility

(K) (K) (%)

Methanal 181 252 55

Ethanal 150 294 

Propanal 192 322 20

Butanal 166 348 7.1

Benzaldehyde 217 452 0.3

Propan-2-one 178 329 

Butan-2-one 187 353 25.6

Pentan-2-one 195 375 5.5

Pentan-3-one 232 374 4.8

Acetophenone 294 475 15

Benzophenone 321 578 –

You can see from Table 29.1 that these compounds have appriciable water solubility. This
is because of the hydrogen bonding possible between the oxygen atom of the aldehyde (or
the ketone) with hydrogen atom of water molecule, as shown in Fig 29.2.

 
O 
O H H
C Hydrogen bonding
R  R'
Fig. 29.2 : Hydrogen bonding between carbonyl compound and water molecule

29.1.4 Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones

If you examine the structure of a molecule of the carbonyl compound, you will find that
there are three centres of reactivity in it as shown below :
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 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids MODULE - 7
Chemistry of Organic
Compounds

Since the oxygen atom is nucleophilic in nature, it is attacked by the electrophiles, whereas Notes
the carbonyl carbon is electrophilic in nature and hence is attacked by nucleophiles. The
third site of reactivity is hydrogen atom present at the  - carbon atom. It is acidic in
nature and gives typical reactions which you will study in this section.
It is also important to know here that aldehydes are more reactive than ketones. This is
because of the following two reasons :
(i) Aldehydes have only one alkyl group whereas ketones have two. Since the alkyl
groups are electron donating in nature, the carbonyl carbon in ketones which is bonded
to two alkyl groups, is less positive (electrophilic) as compared to the aldehydic carbonyl
carbon. Hence, it is less susceptible to attack by nucleophiles.
(ii) The two alkyl groups in ketones also make the carbonyl carbon more crowded as
compared to carbonyl carbon in aldehydes. This factor also makes the aldehydic
carbonyl carbon more accessible for attack by the nucleophiles as compared to
carbonyl carbon of the ketone.
With this background in mind, let us now study the reactions of aldehydes and ketones.
A. Nucleophilic Addition Reactions
The general reaction of addition of nucleophiles on the carbonyl group can be represented
as follows :

Some specific reactions of this category are discussed below :

1. Formation of Cyanohydrins
Carbonyl compounds react with hydrogen cyanide to yield cyanohydrins.

Note that one more carbon atom is present in the cyanohydrin as compared to the starting
carbonyl compound.
Cyanohydrins are useful in the synthesis of carboxylic acids about you will study in the
next section.

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Chemistry of Organic 2. Formation of Hemiacetals

Compounds
Aldehydes and ketones react with alcohols to give hemiacetals. Hemi in Greek means
half. Hemiacetals have an –OH and an –OR group attached to the same carbon atom in
their molecules.
When an excess of the alcohol is used, a second molecule of the alcohol reacts to give an
acetal.
Notes
O OH OCH3
HCl (g) CH3OH
CH3C H + CH3 OH CH3CH CH3 C OH
Ethanal Methanol OCH3 OCH3
a Hemiacetal an Acetal

O OH OCH3
HCl (g) CH3OH
CH3C CH3 + CH3OH CH3 CH CH3 CH3 C CH3
Propanone Methanol OCH3
OCH3
a Hemiacetal an Acetal

Note that an acetal has two —OR groups attached to the same carbon atom.
Acetals are stable in basic solutions and are ‘therefore’ used as protecting groups for
aldehydes and ketones. Acetals can be converted back to the carbonyl compounds by
treating them with dilute acids because of the reversible nature of the above reaction.

3. Formation of Alcohols
Grignard reagents (RMgX) react with aldehydes and ketones to give alcohols as shown
below :

O H
CH3 C H 2 MgBr + H—C—H H—C—OH
Ethyl Methanal
magnesium bromide CH 2 CH3
a Primary alcohol

O H
CH3C H 2 MgBr + CH3 C—H CH3 —C— OH
Ethyl magnesium Ethanal CH 2 CH3
bromide
a Secondary alcohol

O CH3
CH3C H 2 MgBr + CH3C—CH3 CH3 —C— OH
Ethyl magnesium Propanone CH 2 CH3
bromide
a Tertiary alcohol

You have already studied these reactions under the preparation of alcohols in lesson 28.
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 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids MODULE - 7
B. Addition-Elimination or Condensation Reactions Chemistry of Organic
Compounds
1. Reaction with Ammonia and its Derivatives
Aldehydes and ketones react with ammonia and primary amines to give imines which are
compounds having carbon-nitrogen double bond.

Notes

It appears that during the above reaction a molecule of water is lost from the primary
amine and the carbonyl compound. The reactions with other derivatives of ammonia are
given below:

CH O + H 2NOH CH N—OH + H 2 O
Hydroxylamine
an Oxime

CH3 CH3
C O + H2 NNH 2 C NNH 2
Hydrazine
a Hydrazone

NO 2 NO 2

CH3CH2CH O + H2NNH NO2 CH3CH2CH NNH NO 2

2, 4-Dinitrophenzylhydrazine 2, 4-Dinitrophenylhydrazone

The compounds formed above are relatively insoluble solids and have characteristic melting
points. These compounds can be prepared for the unknown aldehyde or ketone and their
melting points can be determined. These melting points are matched with the derivatives
of already known aldehydes and ketones listed in standard tables and the carbonyl compound
is thus identified.
C. De-oxygenation Reactions
De-oxygenation reactions are reactions involving removal of oxygen. Aldehydes and ketones
can be reduced to the corresponding alkanes by the following two reactions:
1. Wolff-Kishner Reduction
When an aldehyde or a ketone is heated in a basic solution of hydrazine in a high-boiling
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 MODULE - 7 Chemistry

Chemistry of Organic alcohol, then the carbonyl group gets converted to a methylene (
—
—
CH 2 ) group.
Compounds

Notes
2. Clemmensen Reduction
It is carried out in acidic medium using amalgamated zinc and hydrochloric acid.

D. Oxidation of Aldehydes
Unlike ketones, aldehydes can be easily oxidised to carboxylic acids using a variety of
oxidising agents. These reagents can be chromic acid, chromium trioxide, permanaganate
or silver oxide. You have already read about oxidation with some of these reagents. Silver
ions selectively oxidise —CHO group. This forms the basis of Tollen’s test. It involves
the addition of a mixture of aqueous silver nitrate and aqueous ammonia which is known
as Tollen’s reagent to the carbonyl compound. Tollen’s reagent contains [Ag(NH 3)2]+
complex ion. If an aldehyde is present, it gets oxidised to the carboxylic acid whereas the
Ag  ions are reduced to form silver metal which gets deposited on the walls of the test
tube and this gives a mirror like shining appearance.

Aldehydes are also oxidised by Fehling solution, which contain Cu 2 (cupric) ions
complexed with tartarate ions as the oxidant. These Cu 2  ions are reduced by the aldehydes
in alkaline medium to give a brick red precipitate of cuprous oxide.

E. Reactions at   carbon
The   hydrogen in aldehydes and ketones is quite acidic and can be easily abstrated by
a strong base.

The resulting anion can stabilise by resonance as shown above. It is called an enolate ion.
On protonation, it gives an enol.

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Chemistry of Organic
Compounds

Thus, keto form and enol form are in equilibrium. This is also known as keto-enol
tautomerism.
Other reactions feasible due to the presence of - hydrogen are as follows: Notes
1. Halogenation
Ketones having an - hydrogen atom react readily with halogens and - haloketones are
obtained as the product. The reaction is promoted both by acids and bases.

(X 2  Cl2 , Br2 or I 2 )
O O
Br2 , CH 3 COOH
H CH 2 C CH3 Br CH 2 CCH3 + HBr
H 2 O, 343K
Propanone Bromopropanone

In presence of the base, multiple halogenation occurs to give the trihalo product.
O H O X
3X 2 + NaOH
C C H + C C X + 3NaX + 3H 2 O
H X
trihaloketone
The trihalo group is a good leaving group and the trihalo ketone reacts with OH– which
finally gives a carboxylate ion and a haloform.
—
O X O X
– –
C C X + HO C O + H C X
X X
Carboxylate ion Haloform
trihaloketone
This reaction is called the haloform reaction after the name of the product.
If iodine is used as the halogen, then we get iodoform ( CHI3 ) as the product. The iodoform
is a bright yellow solid having a characterstic melting point. This reaction, thus, forms the
basis of the iodoform test. Thus, methyl ketones give a positive iodoform test. You had
studied the iodoform formation in lesson 27 also.
2. Aldol Condensation
Aldehydes having   hydrogen atom on reaction with dil. NaOH give aldols. The reaction
is illustrated below by using ethanal as the example.
O OH
NaOH
CH3 C + H3C CHO CH3 C CH 2 CHO
H 2 O, 278 K
H H
Ethanal Ethanal 3-Hydroxybutanal
(an Aldol)
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 MODULE - 7 Chemistry

Chemistry of Organic Note that the product contains both the aldehyde and the alcohol functional groups and
Compounds therefore, it is called an aldol. The aldol addition product on heating undergoes dehydration
to give an , – unsaturated aldehyde which is a condensation product.

Notes

This complete sequence of reactions is called aldol condensation.

Aldol condensation is also possible with ketones. Can you now think of a little more complex
situation? What will be the products of aldol condensation when two diffrent aldehydes
having   hydrogen atoms are used as reactants. In this case, the reaction is called a
crossed-aldol condensation. This is left as an exercise for you. There is a hint of course.
Suppose, the two aldehyde molecules are represented by A and B; then condensation can
occur between two molecules of the same aldehyde or diffrent aldehydes. Thus, the products
obtained would be the following types:
A-A, B-B, A-B and B-A.
With this background in mind, you can now proceed to write the aldol addition products of
ethanal and propanal.

Intext Questions 29.1

1. Classify the following as aldehydes or ketones and give their IUPAC names :
(i) CH3CHO (ii) CH3COCH 2 CH3
COCH3

(iii) (iv) OHCCH 2 CH3

...................................................................................................................................
2. How will you prepare propanone from propyne ?
...................................................................................................................................
3. Why are aldehydes more reactive than ketones towards nucleophilic addition reactions?
...................................................................................................................................
4. Write the general structure for the following :
(i) a cyanohydrin (ii) an acetal (iii) a hemiacetal
...................................................................................................................................

5. How can you convert the carbonyl C O group to CH2 group ?

...................................................................................................................................
6. What is an aldol ?
...................................................................................................................................

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 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids MODULE - 7
Chemistry of Organic
29.2 Carboxylic Acids
Compounds
You already know that carboxylic acids contain a carboxyl (  COOH) funtional group.
They are most widely distributed in nature and are also industrially important chemicals.
Acetic acid in the form of vinegar is produced in large quantities. It is also a very important
building block in complex biological molecules. You must have also heard about fatty
acids which are long chain aliphatic acids derived from the hydrolysis of fats and oils. Notes
Stearic acid is a fatty acid containing a long chain of eighteen carbon atoms.
29.2.1 Nomenclature
Several carboxylic acids have been known since long and their common names are based
on their sources. However, in the IUPAC nomenclature, carboxylic acids are named by
choosing the longest carbon chain containing the COOH group. The final -e in the name
of the alkane is replaced by -oic acid. While numbering the carbon chain, the COOH
carbon is always given number 1 as shown below :

O
||
 C C C C C OH
5 4 3 2 1

The other groups and substituents are numbered and named according to the usual rules
of nomenclature which you have already studied.
Some common carboxylic acids and their names are given below :

O O
|| ||
H C OH CH3 C OH
Methanoic acid Ethanoic acid
(Formic acid) (Acetic acid)

Carboxylic acids containing two carboxyl groups are called dicarboxylic acids. They are
named by adding dioic acid as a suffix to the name of the corresponding hydrocarbon.
Both the carboxyl carbon atoms are numbered as a part of the main chain. Note that in
this case, final- e of the alkane is not dropped.

OO O O
|| || || || 43 2 1
HO C C OH HOC CH 2 COH HOO CC H 2C H 2C OOH
1 2 Propanedioic acid Butane-1,4-dioic acid
Ethanedioic acid (Malonic acid) (Succinic acid)
(Oxalic acid)

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 MODULE - 7 Chemistry

Chemistry of Organic 29.2.2 Preparation of Carboxylic Acids

Compounds
The following methods are generally used for the synthesis of carboxylic acids. You have
already studied some of these methods in the earlier lessons.
1. Oxidation of Alkenes
Alkenes on oxidation with hot alkaline KMnO4 yield carboxylic acids.
Notes 1KMnO , OH
RCH=CHR  
4
 RCOOH  R COOH
2 H3O
2. Oxidation of Alcohols and Aldehydes
You have read in the last lesson and the previous section of this lesson that alcohols and
aldehydes can be oxidized to carboxylic acids using a variety of oxidising agent. You can
refer back to the details of these reactions.
3. Oxidation of Alkylbenzenes
Primary and secondary alkyl groups attached to the benzene ring can be oxidised, using
alkaline KMnO4 , to the carboxyl group.

Acidified sodium dichromate can also be used for this oxidation.

4. Carbonation of Grignard Reagents

Grignard reagents (RMgX) react with carbon dioxide to give magnesium carboxylates
which on acidification yield carboxylic acids.
O
||
H+
 R CO Mg  X 
RMgX+CO2   RCOOH

Mg 1CO
CH3CH 2 Cl  CH 3CH 2 MgCl  2
 CH 3CH 2 COOH
Et 2 O 2H 3O +
Chloroethane Grignard reagent Propanoic acid
(an alkyl halide)

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 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids MODULE - 7
Note that there is an increase of one carbon atom in the carboxylic acid as compared to Chemistry of Organic
the starting alkyl halide. Compounds
5. Hydrolysis of Nitriles and Cyanohydrins
Alkyl halides can be converted to nitriles which on hydrolysis yield carboxylic acids having
one more carbon atom than the starting alkyl halide.
Notes

NaCN H O+
Br CH 2 CH 2 Br 
 NC CH 2 CH 2 CN 
3
HOOCCH 2 CH 2 COOH
1, 2-Dibromoethane Butane dinitrile Butanedioic acid
Cyanohydrins obtained from aldehydes also yield 2-hydroxycarboxylic acids on hydrolysis.

OH OH
| H 3O + |
CH3CH 2 C CN  CH3CH 2 C COOH
| |
H H
2 - Hydroxybutanenitrile 2 - Hydroxybutanoic acid

29.2.3 Structure and Physical Properties

Similar to the aldehydes and ketones, the carboxyl carbon atom is sp 2 hybridised. Thus,
the three atoms attached to this carbon which lie in the same plane with an approximate
bond angle of 120º between them, see Fig. 29.3.
O
120º 120º
C
C OH
120º

Fig. 29.3 : Structure of the carboxyl group

Carboxylic acids form hydrogen bonds because of the presence of polar carbonyl and
hydroxyl groups. Most carboxylic acids exist in dimeric form in which two carboxylic acid
molecules are held together by two hydrogen bonds. This is shown below :

O H—O
Hydrogen bond R—C C—R
O—H O

Dimer of a carboxylic acid

Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is in fact responsible for high melting and boiling points
of carboxylic acids. The melting and boiling points of some carboxylic acids are listed in
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 MODULE - 7 Chemistry

Chemistry of Organic Table 29.2. You can also see in the table that the lower members have appreciable solubility
Compounds in water. This is also due to the presence of hydrogen bonding between the carboxylic acid
molecule and solvent water molecules.
Table 29.2 : Some Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids

Carboxylic Acid m. p. b. p. Water solubility

(K) (K) gmL–1 of H2O at 298K pKa
Notes HCOOH 281 373·5  3·75
CH3COOH 289.6 391  4·76
CH3CH 2 COOH 252 414  4·87
CH3CH 2 CH 2 COOH 267 437  4·82
CH3CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 COOH 239 460 4·97 4·81
ClCH 2 COOH 336 462 very soluble 2·86
Cl2 CHCOOH 283.8 465 very soluble 1·48
Cl3CCOOH 329.3 471 very soluble 0·70
C6 H5COOH 295 523 0·34 4·19
p -CH3C6 H 4 COOH 450 548 0·03 4·36
p -ClC6 H 4 COOH 515 0.009 3.98
p  NO2 C6 H 4 COOH 515 0.03 3.41

Do not worry about the pK a values listed in the last column of the table. We will refer to
them when we discuss the acidic nature of carboxylic acids in the following section.

29.2.4 Acidity of Carboxylic Acids

Carboxylic acids are acidic in nature. They dissociate in water according to following
equilibrium to give a proton and the carboxylate ion.

O O

 R – C – O– + H2O +
R – C – O – H + H2O 
Carboxylic acid Carboxylate ion

The pKa values of some carboxylic acids are given in the last column of Table 29.2.
Remember that the lower pKa indicates greater acidity. If you compare these pKa value
with those of alcohols, you will note that the carboxylic acids are much more acidic than
alcohols. This can be explained on the basis of the anion formed as a result of ionisation.
The carboxylate ion obtained by the dissociation of carboxylic acids can be represented as
a resonance hybrid of the following two structures :

O –:
: :

O
R—C R—C
:O–
: :

O
Resonance structures of Carboxylate Ion

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 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids MODULE - 7
These structures show that the negative charge is delocalised over two oxygen atoms. Chemistry of Organic
Thus, the carboxylate ion gets stabilised. The greater stability of carboxylate ion facilitates Compounds
the release of proton from the –COOH group.
–
If you compare this situation with the alkoxide ion (RO ) obtained by the dissociation of an
alcohol molecule, you will see that no such resonance stabilisation is possible in the alkoxide
ion.
Let us now analyse the acid strength of different acids and correlate them with their Notes
structure. If we examine the first five acids listed in table 29.2, we find that their pKa
values keep on increasing which means that as we go down, their acid strength decreases.
Since the alkyl groups are electron releasing in nature, they make the release of H+
difficult and hence decrease the acidity. Thus, ethanoic acid is less acidic than methanoic
acid. Therefore, we can say that the electron-donating substitutents decrease the
acidity of carboxylic acids.
Let us next see what will be the effect of electron withdrawing substituents such as
halogens and nitro-group on the acidity. The comparison of pKa values of ethanoic acid
(4·76) and chloroethanoic acid (2·86) suggests that chloroethanoic acid is a stronger acid
than ethanoic acid. The chloro substituent has I effect and pulls the electrons towards
itself which facilitates the release of H+ ions.
You can also see below that as the number of halogen groups increases in the carboxylic
acid, its acidity increases. This is because they make the release of H+ ion more and more
easy.

H H Cl Cl
H—C—COOH < Cl—C—COOH < Cl—C—COOH < Cl—C—COOH
H H H Cl
Ethanoic acid Chloroethanoic acid Dichloroethanoic acid Trichloroethanoic acid
pKa 4.76 2.86 1.48 0.70

Acidity increases

Since the inductive effect decreases with increase in the distance of the group in the
carbon chain, 2-chlorobutanoic acid (pKa 2·86) is more acidic than 3-chlorobutanoic acid
(pKa 4.05) which is in turn more acidic than 4-chlorobutanoic acid (pKa 4.50).
Cl Cl Cl
CH3CH2CHCOOH > CH3CHCH2COOH > CH2 CH2CH2 COOH
2-Chlorobutanoic acid 3-Chlorobutanoic acid 4-Chlorobutanoic acid

Acidity increases
(or decreases in the reverse order)

29.2.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids

Let us now study the reactions given by carboxylic acids.
1. Formation of Salts
Carboxylic acids are completely deprotonated by strong bases such as metal hydroxides
to give salts.
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Chemistry of Organic
O O
Compounds
 CH3 C – O– Na+ + H2O
CH3C – O – H + NaOH 
Ethanoic acid Sodium ethanoate

It will be interesting to know that soaps are sodium salts of long chain carboxylic acids
which are called fatty acids.
Notes
O O

CH3(CH2)16 – C – OH + NaOH 
 CH3(CH2)16 – C – O– Na+ + H2O
Stearic acid Sodium stearate (soap)

Caboxylic acids are also deprotonated by the weak bases such as sodium bicarbonate. In
this reaction, they form sodium salt of the acid, carbon dioxide and water.
O O
|| ||
 R C O  Na + +H 2 O+CO 2 
R C O H+NaHCO3 

This reaction is also used as a test for carboxylic acids in the laboratory. The liberation of
CO2 in the form of bubbles on treatment with NaHCO3 indicates a carboxyl functional
group in the compound.
This test is not given by phenols since they are weaker acids than the carboxylic acids. Hence,
the two categories of compounds can be distinguished on the basis of the above test.
2. Reduction of Carboxylic Acids

Carboxylic acids are reduced to primary alcohols by lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH 4 ) .

3. Hell-Volhard-Zelinski Reaction
Similar to aldehydes and ketones, carboxylic acids undergo halogenation at  -carbon
atom using Br2 (or Cl2 ) in the presence of phosphorus or phosphorus trihalide.
Br
1 Br2 ,P
CH3CH2CH2COOH   CH3CH2CHCOOH
2 H 2O
Butanoic acid 2 - Bromobutanoic acid
 -Haloacids so obtained are useful intermediates in the synthesis of other organic
compounds.
4. Synthesis of Acid Derivatives
This is one of the very important reactions of carboxylic acids. The nucleophilic addition
to the carboxyl carbon of the carboxylic acids is followed by elimination of the leaving
group leading to a substitution product. If you remember the reactions of aldehydes
and ketones, the addition of nucleophile is followed by addition of the proton to give an
addition product.
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 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids MODULE - 7
In case of carboxylic acids, since the substitution takes place at the acyl carbon atom as Chemistry of Organic
shown below. It is also known as nucleophilic acyl substitution. Compounds
O O
|| ||
 
 R C Nu  X 
R C X  : Nu 

Here, X = OH in case of the carboxylic acids and Nu  can be a halide ion,

O Notes
||

O C R,  O R  or  NH 2 group leading, respectively to carboxyl acid halides,
anhydrides, esters or amides as the substitution products which are known as
derivatives of carboxylic acids because they are derived from carboxylic acids.

(i) Formation of Acid Chlorides

Carboxylic acids react with SOCl2 , PCl3 or PCl5 to give carboxylic acid chlorides also
known as acyl chlorides, as shown below :

O O
|| ||
R C OH  SOCl2  R C Cl  SO2   HCl 

Carboxylic Thionyl an acid

acid chloride chloride
O O
|| ||
R– C –OH  PCl3   3R C Cl  H 3PO3
Phosphorus
trichloride

O O
|| ||
R C OH + PCl5   R C Cl + POCl3 + HCl
Phosphorus
pentachloride

(ii) Formation of Acid Anhydrides

O O
P2O5
|| ||
2 RCOOH  
 RC O C R
 H 2O
a Carboxylic acid an Acid Anhydride
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 MODULE - 7 Chemistry

Chemistry of Organic O O
|| ||
Compounds 2 CH3COOH
P2O5
  CH3  C  O  C  CH3
 H 2O
Ethanoic anhydride

Since the carboxylic acid anhydrides are formally derived from carboxylic acids by loss of
water, their names are derived from the corresponding acids by using the word anhydride
in place of the acid. As the anhydride formed in the above reaction is derived from ethanoic
Notes acid, it is called ethanoic anhydride.
This method is used for the preparation of symmetrical anhydrides.
Carboxylic acid also react with acyl chlorides in the presence of pyridine to give carboxylic
acid anhydrides.

O O O O
|| || 
|| ||
CH3CH 2 CH 2 C OH + Cl C CH 2 CH 2 CH 3  CH 3CH 2 CH 2 C  O  C  CH 2 CH 2 CH 3
Pyridine
Butanoic acid Butanoyl chloride Butanoic anhydride

We can prepare unsymmetrical anhydrides by this method.

Cylic anhydrides are obtained by the dehydration of dicarboxylic acids at higher temperature.

(iii) Formation of Esters

Carboxylic acids react with alcohols to form esters.

O O
|| H + ||
 R C OR +H 2 O
R C OH + R OH 
Carboxylic Alcohol Ester
acid

Note that the acid catalysed esterification is an equilibrium reaction. The equilibrium can
be shifted to the right side towards products it we are able to remove water or the ester
from the reaction mixture. Also if we use excess of one reagent, then the equilibrium shifts
towards the right side to give the ester. Normally, we take excess of alcohol and use it as
a solvent to carry out esterification.
O O
|| ||
H 2SO4 , Δ
CH3 C OH + CH3OH 
 CH3COCH3
–H 2O
Ethanoicacid Methanol Methyl ethanoate

236
 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids MODULE - 7
Esters are named as alkyl alkanoates. The alkyl part comes from the alcohol while the Chemistry of Organic
alkanoate portion is derived from the carboxylic acid. Therefore, the above ester is called Compounds
methyl ethanoate because it is obtained from methyl alcohol and ethanoic acid.
Esters can also be prepared by the reaction of acid chlorides or acids anhydrides with
alcohols. Thus, we can see that these acid derivatives can be converted to one-another.
O O
Notes
C–Cl COCH2CH3

Pyridine
+ CH3CH2OH + HCl

Benzoyl chloride Ethanol Ethyl benzoate

(iv) Formation of Amides

Carboxylic acids react with ammonia or amines to give amides. The reaction involves the
formation of an ammonium carboxylate salt as an intermediate which on heating gives
amide.
O O O
|| ||   
||
R  C  OH  : NH 3 
 R C  O N H 4   R  C  NH 2  H 2 O
Carboxylic Ammonium an Amide
acid carboxylate

O O
|| ||
R C OH  R NH 2  R C NHR   H 2 O
Carboxylic Primary Amide
acid amine (Substituted)
Amides can also be obtained by the reaction of ammonia or amines with carboxylic acid
halides, anhydrides and esters.
O O
|| NaOH
||
CH3 C Cl + CH3 NH 2   CH3 C NH CH3
Ethanoyl N - Methylethanamide
chloride

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 MODULE - 7 Chemistry

Chemistry of Organic O O
Compounds || ||
273-278 K
ClCH 2 C OC2 H5 +NH3   ClCH 2 C NH 2  C2 H5OH
Ethyl chloroethanoate Chloroethanamide Ethanol

Thus, we can make one carboxylic acid derivative from another. Generally, the less
reactive acid (acyl) derivatives can be prepared from the more reactive ones.
Notes The order of reactivity of various carboxylic acid derivatives is as follows :

Acid chloride > Acid anhydride > Ester > Amide

Thus, acid chlorides are the most reactive ones whereas the amides are the least reactive.
Since the least reactive derivative can be prepared from the more reactive ones, we can
summarise which derivative can be prepared from which other one in the following way:

Anhydride
Acid chloride Ester Acid chloride Anhydride

Amide Ester

Acid chloride

Anhydride

Of course, these derivatives can be synthesised from the carboxylic acids as well.

Intext Questions 29.2

1. Match the following compounds given in column I and their classes given in column II:
Column I Column II

(i) CH3COOH (a) Carboxylic acid halide

(ii) CH3CONH 2 (b) Carboxylic acid

(iii) CH3COOCH3 (c) Carboxylic acid anhydride

(iv) CH3COCl (d) Carboxylic acid amide

(v) CH3COOCOCH 2 Cl (e) Ester

2. Arrange the following acids in the increasing order of their solubility in water :

238
 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids MODULE - 7
CH3COOH, CH3 (CH 2 )3COOH p -ClC6 H 4 COOH Chemistry of Organic
Compounds
...................................................................................................................................
3. Which one of the following will be most acidic and why ?
Butanoic acid, 2-Chlorobutanoic acid, 3-Chlorobutanoic acid, 4-Chlorobutanoic acid
................................................................................................................................... Notes
4. Give the products of the following reactions :

(i) NaCN
(i) BrCH 2 CH3  +
(ii) H 3O

CH3
(i) KMnO4 , –OH, 
(ii)
(ii) H3O+

(iii) CH 3COOH + PCl3 



...................................................................................................................................
5. Why are carboxylic acids more acidic than alcohols ?
...................................................................................................................................

What You Have Leant

In this lesson, you have learnt that
 Aldehydes and ketones constitute the carbonyl compounds. Aldehydes are known as
alkanals whereas ketones are called alkanones.
 Aldehydes and ketones can be prepared by oxidation of alcohols, ozonolysis of alkenes,
hydration of alkynes and Friedel–Craft’s acylation.
 Carbonyl group is polar in nature and carbonyl-carbon is susceptible to nucleophilic
attack. Thus, aldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions with many
reagents. They also exhibit condensation reactions.
 Since the  -hydrogen is acidic in nature, aldehydes and ketones show specefic
reactions at  -carbon atom such as halogenation and aldol condensation.
 Carboxylic acids are an important class of compounds.
 The methods of preparation of carboxylic acids being oxidation of alkenes, aldehydes
and ketones and alkylbenzene, hydrolysis of nitriles and carbonation of Grignard
reagents.
 The molecules of carboxylic acids show hydrogen bonding and can exist as dimers.
 Carboxylic acids are acidic in nature. Their acidity is affected by various factors
including the nature of substituents attached to the carbon chain bearing the carboxylic
group.
239
 MODULE - 7 Chemistry

Chemistry of Organic  Carboxylic acids form salts with strong bases such as metal hydroxides. They undergo
Compounds halogenation at  -carbon atom and can be reduced to primary alcohols using LiAIH 4 .
 Carboxylic acids gives rise to a number of carboxylic acid derivatives such as carboxylic
acid halides, anhydrides, esters and amides by nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions.
They can be prepared from one another as shown below :

Notes

Terminal Exercise
1. Write the structural formulae and IUPAC names of the compounds containing a carbonyl
functional group and having the molecular formula C3 H 6 O.

2. How can you prepare primary, secondary or tertiary alcohols using aldehydes or ketones?
3. What is Tollen’s Test ?
4. Explain keto-enol tautomerism.
5. What is haloform reaction ?
6. How will you test a carboxylic acid in the laboratory ?
7. Which reagent can reduce a carboxylic acid to a primary alcohol ?
8. What are carboxylic acid anhydrides ? Give their method of preparation from carboxylic
acids.
9. Which carboxylic acid derivative is most reactive ?
(a) Acid amide (b) Ester (c) Acid halide (d) Acid anhydride

Answers to Intext Questions

29.1
1. (i) aldehyde, Ethanal
(ii) ketone, Butan-2-one
(iii) ketone, 1-Phenylethanone
(iv) aldehyde, Propanal

2. Using hydration with Hg 2+ , H + .

240
 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids MODULE - 7
3. Because they have one alkyl group whereas a ketone has two alkyl group. Hence, Chemistry of Organic
the carbonyl carbon in aldehydes is more positive. Compounds
Also, the two alkyl groups lead to more crowding in ketones.

OH OR  R
| | |
4. (i) R C CN (ii) R C R  (iii) R C R 
| | | Notes
R OR  OH

5. By Wolff- Kishner reduction or Clemmensen reduction.

6. The product formed by the condensation of two aldehyde molecules having-hydrogen
atom. Aldol contains both an aldehyde and an alcohol functional group.

29.2
1. (i). (b) (ii). (d) (iii). (e) (iv). (a) (v) e
2. p – CIC6H4COOH < CH3(CH2)3COOH < CH3COOH

3. 2-Chlorobutanoic acid, because of maximum –I effect of –Cl at 2 – position.

COOH

4. (i) HOOCCH 2 CH3 , (ii) ,

(iii) 3CH3COCl + H3 PO3

5. Because of resonance stabilization of carboxylate anion. The alkoxide ion cannot

stabilize by resonance.

241