General Controls for Horizontal

and Vertical Alignment

Objective of the Lecture
Lecturer:
•To present an overview of general
design controls
The learner should be able to:
•Apply the general controls in the
design exercise and on any project

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 Sub-topics

1. General design controls - Alignment

coordination in design
2. General controls for vertical alignment
3. General controls for horizontal alignment
4. Other elements affecting geometric design

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General Design controls- Co-ordination
between Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
• Horizontal and Vertical alignment are permanent design
elements
• It is difficult and costly to correct alignment deficiencies after
highway is constructed.
• On most arterial streets, heavy development takes place along
property lines making it impractical to change alignment in the
future
• It is therefore important that thorough study is done before
the highway is constructed. Compromises in the alignment
designs should be weighed carefully because any initial savings
may be more than offset by the economic loss to the public.
General Design Controls
• Horizontal and vertical alignment should not be
designed independently
• They complement each other; and poorly designed
combinations can spoil the good points and aggravate
the deficiencies of each.
• Excellence in the design of each and of their
combination enhances vehicle control, encourages
uniform speed, and improves appearance nearly
always without additional cost
 Key points to note:
1) Design speed controls the general location
and the limiting values of many elements
and thus keeps them in balance
2) Harmonizing of the vertical and horizontal
alignments is essential to keep the
roadway economical, pleasant, and safe.

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 3) Alignment coordination must begin with
preliminary design
4) Plan and profile should be plotted together
(small scale) on long rolling paper to allow
visualization in three dimensions – or use
software that provides 3D viewing
5) Make adjustments in either horizontal
alignment or profile or both to obtain desired
coordination

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6) Focus at this stage is on major controls not on
detailed calculations. Graphical checks and limited
checks on required SD, minimum radius,
superelevation runoff length and maximum grade
are adequate.
7) All aspects of terrain, traffic operation, and
appearance should be considered.
8) Satisfactory vertical and horizontal lines and their
coordination must be achieved before detailed
computation

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 Coordination Guidelines
1) Avoid the two extremes of either tangent alignment
/flat curve at the expense of steep/long grades or
excessive curvature with flat grades. Aim at smooth
flowing alignment meeting capacity, safety and
appearance criteria within the limits of terrain. This is
found at the balance between the two extremes.
2) Vertical curvature contained in horizontal curvature
generally results in a more pleasing facility

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 Coordination Guidelines ….

3. Avoid sharp horizontal curvature introduced near the top

of pronounced crest curve
4) Avoid sharp horizontal curvature at the bottom of steep
downgrade approaching a low point of a pronounced sag
curve.
5) The need to provide sufficient passing sections may
override the general guidelines for combination of
vertical and horizontal alignment. On such conditions, it
is appropriate to work toward long tangent sections to
assure sufficient passing sight distance in design

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Coordination Guidelines ….
6) Both horizontal and vertical curvature at intersections
should be as flat as possible (SD requirement !)
7) On divided roadways it may be desirable to use
independent horizontal alignment and profile for each
direction and variable median width.
8) In residential areas design to minimize nuisance to
the neighbourhood: depressed facility, increase buffer
zone
9) Design alignment to enhance motorists view of scenic
futures.
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 2. General controls for vertical
alignment
1) Fit the grades into the terrain in such a way to
achieve smooth grade-lines with gradual changes.
Avoid numerous breaks with short tangents
2) Avoid roller-coaster (hidden-dip) alignment
3) Evaluate profiles with substantial lengths of
momentum grades
4) Avoid broken back alignment

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5) On long grades, it is desirable to flatten the
grade near the top. This is very relevant to roads
with low design speeds
6) Reduce a steep grade through an at grade
intersection
7) Avoid sag curves in cut unless adequate
drainage can be provided

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General Controls for vertical alignment
• 1. A smooth grade line with gradual changes is preferred to
a line with numerous breaks and short grades.
• 2. Profiles should avoid the "roller-coaster" appearance, as
well as "hidden dips" in the alignment.
• 3. Undulating grade lines involving substantial lengths of
momentum (down) grades should be carefully evaluated
with respect to operation of trucks.
• 4. Broken-back grade lines (two consecutive vertical curves
in the same direction separated by a short tangent section)
should be avoided wherever possible.
General Controls- VA
• 5. On long grades, it may be preferable to place the
steepest grades at the bottom, lightening the gmde on the
ascent. If this is difficult, short sections of lighter grades
should be inserted periodically to aid operations.
• 6. "There at-grade intersections occur on roadway sections
with moderate to steep grades, the grade should be
reduced or flattened through the intersection area.
• 7. Sag vertical curves in cuts should be avoided unless
adequate drainage is provided.
 3) General controls - horizontal
alignment
Guidelines :
(Aim) to avoid excessive curvature or poor
combinations of curvature which limit capacity
and cause economic loss – increased delay,
increase in operating costs – detracts from
pleasing appearance!

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 Guidelines …
1) Alignment should be as directional as possible but
consistent with terrain and developments
2) Use minimum radius for a give design speed only at
critical locations – prefer flat curves
3) Always seek consistent alignment

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4) Use small deflection angle and longest practical
curve except where the need to provide passing
over-rides
5)For small deflection angles go for long curves to
avoid appearance of a kink. E.g. 150 m Lc for 5
degrees deflection angle. Increase Lc by 30 for each
one degree decrease in deflection angle.

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Other elements affecting geometric design
1) Drainage: Bridges, culverts, channels, kerbs, gutters,
drains. Design storm for hydraulic design should be
economical. Consult appropriate design manual.
Culvert, bridge height and highest water level on
flood plains affect the location and profile.
2) Erosion control – considered in cross section and
drain design

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 3) Rest areas, information centres, lorry bays
Desirable elements of complete facility design
and provided for the safety and convenience
of users. Parking facilities away from the
travelled way + services

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•4) Lighting: justified for built-up areas. Design of
rural roads should adopt an open cross section
and alignment that allows maximum use of
headlamps and hence no justification for fixed
lighting.

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5) Utilities: utilities should be located to avoid
interference with future roadway expansion –
Longitudinal utilities should be located close to
the edge of the road reserve while those
crossing should be encased or through a culvert
to avoid disruption of traffic during
maintenance.

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6) Traffic Control Devices:
•Signs and marking is part of traffic operation
plan and is done concurrently with the design
of geometrics . Signing and marking
supplement the design and inform, warn or
regulate the users

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 •Traffic signals – assign right of way to
traffic usually in built up areas. Planned
operation of the device should be
integrated with the design to achieve
optimal operational efficiency.

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 7) Noise barriers: For convenience of
public living close to the roadway.
The installation of noise barriers
should not compromise the location
of TCD and the safe operation of the
roadway
8) Fencing – used to prevent
encroachment of the road reserve
and control access.
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9) Maintenance of traffic during construction
• Carefully develop a plan for movement of traffic
through work zone : safety of public and
productivity of the contractor.
• This need may affect the design of an up-grading
project!

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Co-ordination
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