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ATOMS
Chapter: - 12th
PHYSICS
CLASS: - 12TH
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Chapter: - 12th
Atoms
1) J.J. Thomson's Plum Pudding Model of the Atom:
• Discovery: J.J. Thomson discovered the electron, a negatively charged particle.
• Basic Particles in Atoms: Atoms consist of electrons, protons, and neutrons.
• Thomson's Proposal: Thomson proposed the first model of the atom based on his
discovery.
• Structure: An atom is a sphere of positive charge with uniform density, approximately
10-10 m in diameter.
• Electron Placement: Negatively charged electrons
are embedded in the positively charged sphere,
resembling plums in a pudding.
• Charge Neutrality: The atom as a whole is neutral,
with the positive and negative charges balanced.
• Model Name: This model is known as the "plum
pudding model" or the "positive sphere model."
According to JJ Thomson’s an atom is a sphere of positive charges of uniform density of
about 10-10 m diameter in which negative charges (i.e., electrons) are embedded like
plums (i.e., fruits like dried grapes) in the pudding. Thomson model of atom is also
called “plum pudding model”.
2) Alpha - particle scattering experiment: Rutherford's model of atom:
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Experimental Setup:
• Source of alpha particles: Radium.
• Beam of alpha particles emitted from a radioactive substance, directed towards a
gold foil.
• The gold foil is thin (10 nm) and placed inside an evacuated chamber.
• A circular screen coated with zinc sulfide (ZnS) is used to detect alpha particles.
Observations:
a) Most of the alpha particles pass
through the gold foil undeflected.
b) Some alpha particles are deflected
through small angles (> 1o).
c) A few alpha particles (1 in 8000)
are deflected through large angles,
and some even retrace their paths
(180° deflection).
d) The number of alpha particles per
unit solid angle, N(θ), varies with
the scattering angle θ and follows
the relationship:
𝑵(𝜽) = 𝟏⁄
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝟒 (𝜽⁄𝟐)
e) The force between α- particle and nucleus is given by
𝟏 (𝟐𝒆)(𝒁𝒆)
𝑭 = 𝟒𝝅Ɛ
𝒐 𝒓𝟐
r = distance between α- particle and nucleus.
Conclusion:
1. Empty Space in Atom:
• Most alpha particles pass through undeflected, suggesting that most of the space
in an atom is empty.
2. Concentration of Mass and Charge:
• Alpha particles, being positively charged and having large mass, can only be
deflected backward by a strong repulsive force.
• Rutherford concludes that the positive charge in an atom is concentrated in a
small, heavy region at the atom's center, called the nucleus.
3. Nucleus:
• Rutherford proposes the existence of a nucleus where most of the atom's mass
and positive charge are concentrated.
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4. Particle Interactions:
• Alpha particles traveling toward the nucleus are repelled and deflected.
• Electrons, being lighter, do not significantly affect the path of alpha particles.
3) Alpha – Particle Trajectory and impact parameters: -
• Impact Parameter (b): The perpendicular distance of the velocity vector (u) of an
incident alpha particle from the center of the nucleus when the alpha particle is not
deflected.
Expression for Impact Parameter: 𝒃 =
𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐭 (𝜽⁄𝟐) 𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐭 (𝜽⁄𝟐)
= 𝟏
𝟒𝝅Ɛ𝒐 𝑬 𝟒𝝅Ɛ𝒐 ( 𝒎𝒖𝟐 )
𝟐
• b is the impact parameter.
• Ze is the product of the atomic number and
the elementary charge.
• ε0 is the permittivity of free space.
• E is the kinetic energy of the alpha particle.
• θ is the scattering angle.
Observations:
1. Large Impact Parameter (b):
• When b is large, cot (𝜽⁄ ) is large, and θ (scattering angle) is small.
𝟐
• Alpha particles, traveling far from the nucleus, experience small deflections.
2. Small Impact Parameter (�b):
• When b is small, cot (𝜽⁄ ) is small, and θ is large.
𝟐
• Alpha particles, traveling close to the nucleus, experience significant deflections.
3. Retracing Path:
• When b=0, the alpha particle is directed toward the center of the nucleus.
𝜽
= 𝟗𝟎𝒐 𝒐𝒓 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎
𝟐
• meaning the alpha particle retraces its path when it travels directly toward the
center of the nucleus.
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Conclusion:
• The impact parameter plays a crucial role in determining the path adopted by alpha
particles in the electrostatic field of the target nucleus during Rutherford's scattering
experiment.
• Large impact parameters result in small scattering angles, indicating minor deflections,
while small impact parameters lead to large scattering angles, indicating significant
deflections or even retracing of paths.
4) Distance of closest approach: -
Distance of Closest Approach (r0 or d): The minimum distance up to which an energetic
alpha particle, traveling directly towards a nucleus, can approach before coming to rest
and then retracing its path. This distance is denoted by r0 or d and estimates the size of
the nucleus.
Assumptions made by Rutherford:
a) Elastic Collisions:
• Scattering occurs due to elastic collisions between the alpha particle and the
nucleus.
b) Neglect of Nucleus Motion:
• The motion of the nucleus during impact is not taken into account because the
nucleus is considered to be very heavy (e.g., a gold nucleus is 50 times heavier
than an alpha particle).
c) Point Charges:
• Both the alpha particle and the nucleus are treated as point charges.
d) Expression for Distance of Closest Approach:
This is the distance at which the kinetic energy (E) of a-particle is completely converted
into electric potential energy of the system.
𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑲. 𝑬. = 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 + 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝜶 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆……… (1)
𝟏
Kinetic energy(E) = 𝒎𝒖𝟐
𝟐
𝟏 (𝒁𝒆)
𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 =
𝟒𝝅Ɛ𝒐 𝒓𝒐
Using in equation (1)
𝟏 𝟏 (𝒁𝒆)
𝒎𝒖𝟐 = + 𝟐𝒆
𝟐 𝟒𝝅Ɛ𝒐 𝒓𝒐
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𝟏 𝟏 (𝒁𝒆)(𝟐𝒆)
𝒎𝒖𝟐 =
𝟐 𝟒𝝅Ɛ𝒐 𝒓𝒐
𝟐𝒁𝒆𝟐
𝒓𝒐 =
𝟒𝝅Ɛ𝒐 (𝟏𝟐 𝒎𝒖𝟐 )
𝟐𝒁𝒆𝟐
𝒓𝒐 =
𝟒𝝅Ɛ𝒐 (𝑬)
• r0 is the distance of closest approach.
• e is the elementary charge.
• m is the mass of the alpha particle.
• u is the velocity of the alpha particle.
• Ze is the product of the atomic number and the elementary charge.
e) Explanation:
• As the alpha particle moves towards the nucleus, the repulsive force between the alpha
particle and the nucleus increases.
• At the distance of closest approach, the alpha particle comes to rest, and its kinetic
energy is completely converted into the electric potential energy of the system.
• The expression for r0 relates the potential energy to the kinetic energy of the alpha
particle at the point of closest approach.
Conclusion:
• The distance of closest approach is a crucial parameter in Rutherford's model, helping
estimate the size of the nucleus based on the interaction between an alpha particle and
the nucleus.
• It provides insights into the distribution of charge within the nucleus.
5) Summary of Rutherford's Nuclear Model of the Atom:
Nuclear Model:
a) Distribution of Mass and Charge:
• Almost all the mass of the atom and all the positive charges are
concentrated in a very small region known as the atomic nucleus.
• The size of the nucleus is extremely small, with a diameter on the order of
10-15 meters, in stark contrast to the larger diameter of the entire atom
(about 100 pm).
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b) Electron Behavior:
• Negatively charged electrons revolve around the nucleus but are located
far away from it.
• Most of the space in an atom is empty, indicating that the nucleus occupies
a tiny fraction of the total volume.
c) Centripetal Force and Coulomb's Attraction:
• The centripetal force required for the electrons to revolve around the
nucleus is provided by the Coulomb's force of attraction between the
positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged electrons.
i.e., Fc=Fe
𝒎𝒗𝟐 𝟏 (𝒆𝟐 )
=
𝒓 𝟒𝝅Ɛ𝒐 𝒓𝟐
𝟐
𝟏 (𝒆𝟐 )
𝒎𝒗 =
𝟒𝝅Ɛ𝒐 𝒓
𝟏
Kinetic energy: - K = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 (from equation 1)
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 (𝒆𝟐 ) 𝟏 (𝒆𝟐 )
K= (
𝟐 𝟒𝝅Ɛ𝒐 𝒓
) = 𝟖𝝅Ɛ 𝒓
𝒐
𝒆𝟐
Potential energy: - U = −
𝟒𝝅Ɛ𝒐 𝒓
Thus, total mechanical energy is
𝟏 (𝒆𝟐 ) 𝒆𝟐
E = K + U = 𝟖𝝅Ɛ 𝒓
+ (− 𝟒𝝅Ɛ 𝒓 )
𝒐 𝒐
𝒆𝟐
E = − 𝟖𝝅Ɛ 𝒓
𝒐
d) Electrically Neutral Atom:
• The number of revolving electrons is equal to the number of positive
charges in the nucleus, ensuring that the atom is electrically neutral.
e) Total Energy of Electrons:
• The total energy of electrons in the atom is negative.
6) Drawbacks of Rutherford's Model of the Atom:
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a) Failure to Explain Stability:
• Rutherford's model proposed electrons
orbiting the nucleus in circular paths.
• According to classical electrodynamics, an
accelerated charged particle emits
electromagnetic radiation and loses energy.
• Continuous loss of energy should cause the electron's orbit to gradually decrease,
leading to it spiraling into the nucleus.
• This contradicts the observed stability of atoms, where electrons do not fall into
the nucleus over time.
b) Inability to Justify Complex Spectra:
• Rutherford's model suggested that electrons could revolve around the nucleus in
circular orbits of any possible radius.
• According to classical physics, this would result in atoms emitting a continuous
energy spectrum.
• However, actual observations, especially in the case of hydrogen, revealed line
spectra rather than continuous ones.
• Rutherford's model failed to explain the discrete spectral lines observed in the
emission spectra of atoms.
7) BOHA’S Atom Model: -
Rutherford's model of atom failed to explain the stability of atom as well as spectrum
of radiation emitted and absorbed by in atom. To explain the stability and the
radiation spectrum concept of an atom, Niels Henrik David Bohr applied Planck's
quantum theory of radiation to Rutherford's model. He used classical as well as
quantum concepts to form his theory. He made the following assumptions: -
Postulates of Bohr’s Atom Model: -
a) Electron Orbits:
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits without the emission of
radiant energy.
b) Quantization of Angular Momentum:
• Only certain orbits, with specific quantized values of angular momentum, are
stable. The angular momentum L = mvr is quantized and is an integral
multiple of 𝒉⁄𝟐𝝅
where m is the mass of the electron,
v is its velocity,
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r is the radius of the orbit, and
h is Planck's constant.
𝒏𝒉
Mvr =
𝟐𝝅
n is an integer called the principal quantum number, and it specifies the
energy level or shell.
c) Radiation Absorption and Emission:
• Electrons in stable orbits neither emit nor absorb energy. They remain in these
orbits without any radiation.
2𝜋𝑘𝑒 4 𝑧 2
𝐸𝑛 =
ℎ2 𝑛2
En is the energy of the electron in the nth orbit,
k is Coulomb's constant,
e is the charge of the electron,
Z is the atomic number,
h is Planck's constant, and
n is the principal quantum number.
d) Energy Changes in Transitions:
• When an electron transitions from a higher
energy orbit (n2) to a lower energy orbit
(n1), a photon is emitted or absorbed, and
the frequency of the emitted or absorbed
radiation is related to the energy difference between the two orbits.
𝒉𝒗 = 𝑬𝒊 + 𝑬𝒇
• ΔE is the energy change,
• h is Planck's constant,
• ν is the frequency of the emitted or absorbed radiation.
e) Stationary Orbits:
• Electrons in stable orbits are in a "stationary" state, meaning they do not
radiate energy. These orbits are also called "quantized" or "allowed" orbits.
f) Quantum of Action:
• The product of Planck's constant (h) and the frequency (ν) is a multiple of 2π,
representing a quantum of action.
hν=2πℏ
• ℏ is the reduced Planck's constant, equal to 𝒉⁄
𝟐𝝅.
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Energy level of Hydrogen atom: -
The energy of the hydrogen atom in nth state: -
−13.6
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑒𝑉
𝑛2
a) When n = 1 i.e., the electron is revolving in the innermost orbit
E1 = -13.6 eV.
This is the lowest energy state of hydrogen atom and said to be in the ground
state.
b) When n = 2 i.e., the electron is revolving in the second orbit
E2 = -3.4 eV.
This is the first excited state energy of hydrogen atom.
c) When n = 3 i.e., the electron is revolving in the Third orbit
E2 = -1.51 eV.
This is the second excited state energy of hydrogen atom.
d) When n = ꝏ i.e., the electron is revolving in the Third orbit
−𝟏𝟑. 𝟔
𝑬ꝏ = 𝒆𝑽 = 𝟎
ꝏ𝟐
The electron is completely free from the attraction.
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