SURVEYING
Surveying means to examine and record the area and features of ( an area of land ) so as
to construct a map, plan or its description.
Fundamentals of surveying
1. Distance measurement
2. Levelling
3. Area computation of a closed traverse
4. Subdivision of a closed traverse
5. Topographic survey
6. Hydrographic survey
Distance measurement
1. Methods of measuring Distances
a. Pacing – measuring a distance by walking and counting the number of steps taken.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
Pace factor =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
b. Taping – linear measurement of a distance between two points using a surveyors
tape.
c. Electronic distance measurement
Systematic errors in Taping
1. Correction due to variation in temperature
CT = K ( T f – Ts ) L
Where:
K = coefficient of linear thermal ( linear expansion )
= 0.0000116/°C ( for steel tape )
L = length of the tape when standardized
Tf = temperature of field condition
Ts = temperature by which the tape was standardized
2. Correction due to variation in tension
( 𝑃 − 𝑃 )𝐿
Cp = 𝑎 𝑠
𝐴𝐸
Where:
Pa = applied pull during measurement
Ps = standardized pull
L = length of tape when standardized
A = cross sectional area of the tape
E = modulus of elasticity of the tape
3. Correction due to sag
𝑊 2 𝐿3
Cs =
24 𝑃𝑎2
Where:
W = unit weight of tape
L = length between the support
Pa = applied pull
4. Correction due to slope
If 𝛼 is very small angle ( < 2° )
𝑉2
Csl =
2𝑆
Where:
S = slope distance / inclined distance
v = diff. in elevation at the end of the tape
if 𝛼 is a big angle ( > 2° ), then use mathematical method in solving for the slope
correction.
5. Correction due to offsets
LAYING A LINE
A. Tape too long ( +e ) B. Tape too short ( -e )
𝑴 𝑴
T=M+ (𝒆) T=M- (𝒆)
𝑳 𝑳
Where:
T = Actual distance to be laid with erroneous length of tape
M = The distance required to be laid
e = summation of errors due to temperature, pull, sag, slope and offsets
Note:
1 tally = 10 pins
1 pin = distance of the tape that is being used.
1. A line was measured with a 50m tape. There were two tallies, 8 pins and the distance
From the last pin to the end of the line was 2.25m. Find the lenge in meters.
2. A line 100m long was paced by a surveyor for four times with the following data 142,
145, 145.5 and 146. Then another line was paced for four times again with the following
results 893, 893.5, 891 and 895.5.
a. Determine the pace factor
b. Determine the number of paces for the new line.
c. Determine the distance of the new line.
3. A 50m tape was standardized and was found to be 0.0042m too long than the standard
length at an observed temperature of 58°C and a pull of 15 kilos. The same tape was
used to measure a certain distance and was recorded to be 673.92m long at an
observed temperature of 68°C and a pull of 15 kilos. Coefficient of linear expansion is
0.0000116/°C.
a. Determine the standard temperature.
b. Determine the total correction.
c. Determine the true length of the line.
4. A 30m steel tape weighing 1.45kg is of standard length under a pull of 5kg supported for
full length. The tape was used in measuring a line 938.55m long on a smooth level
ground under a steady pull of 10kg. Assuming E = 2x106 kg/cm2 and the unit weight of
steel to be 7.9x10-3 kg/cm3.
a. Determine the cross sectional area of the tape in cm2.
b. Determine the correction for increase in tension.
c. Determine the correct length of the line measured.
5. A 50m tape of standard length has a weight of 0.05kg/m, with a cross sectional area of
[Link]. It has a modulus of elasticity of 2.10x106 kg/cm2. The tape is of standard
length under a pull of 5.5kg when supported throughout its length and a temp of 20°C.
This tape was used to measure a distance between A and B and was recorded to be
458.65m long. At the time of measurement the pull applied was 8kg with the tape
supported only at its end points and the temperature observed was 18°C. Assuming
coefficient of linear expansion of the tape is 0.0000116m/°C.
a. Compute the correction due to the applied pull of 8kg.
b. Compute the correction due to weight of tape.
c. Compute the true length of the measured line AB due to combined effects of
tension,sag and temperature.