Module 4 Electrons, Waves and Photons
In this module, students will learn about electrons, electric current, electrical circuits, wave properties,
electromagnetic waves and, of course, quantum physics.
The content of this module will be examined in both papers at AS level and papers 02 and 03 at A level.
4.1 Charge and Current Covered
in class Confident
Students should be able to demonstrate and apply their knowledge and understanding of:
4.1.1 Charge
a) electric current as rate of flow of charge; I = ∆Q/∆t
b) the coulomb as the unit of charge
c) the elementary charge e equals 1.6 × 10−19 C (Students need to know that an electron
has charge –e and a proton has charge +e)
d) net charge on a particle or an object is quantised and a multiple of e
e) current as the movement of electrons in metals and movement of ions in electrolytes
f) conventional current and electron flow
g) Kirchhoff’s first law; conservation of charge
4.1.2 Mean Drift Velocity
a) mean drift velocity of charge carriers
b) I = Anev, where n is the number density of charge carriers
c) distinction between conductors, semiconductors and insulators in terms of n
4.2 Energy, Power and Resistance
Students should be able to demonstrate and apply their knowledge and understanding of:
4.2.1 Circuit Symbols
a) circuit symbols
b) circuit diagrams using these symbols.
4.2.2 E.m.f. and p.d.
a) potential difference (p.d.); the unit volt
b) electromotive force (e.m.f.) of a source such as a cell or a power supply
c) distinction between e.m.f. and p.d. in terms of energy transfer
d) energy transfer; W = VQ; W = εQ
e) energy transfer eV = ½ mv2 for electrons and other charged particles.
4.2.3 Resistance
a) resistance; V = IR ; the unit ohm (students need to recall this equation)
b) Ohm’s law
c) (i) I–V characteristics of resistor, filament lamp, thermistor, diode and light-emitting
diode (LED)
c) (ii) techniques and procedures used to investigate the electrical characteristics for a
range of ohmic and non-ohmic components.
d) light-dependent resistor (LDR); variation of resistance with light intensity.
4.2.4 Resistivity
a) (i) resistivity of a material; the equation R = ρL/A
a) (ii) techniques and procedures used to determine the resistivity of a metal.
b) the variation of resistivity of metals and semiconductors with temperature
c) negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor; variation of resistance with
temperature.
4.2.5 Power
a) the equations P = VI , P = I2R and P = V2/R
b) energy transfer; W = VIt
c) the kilowatt-hour (kW h) as a unit of energy; calculating the cost of energy (students will
be expected to link this with efficiency)
4.3 Electrical Circuits
Students should be able to demonstrate and apply their knowledge and understanding of:
4.3.1 Series and Parallel Circuits
a) Kirchhoff’s second law; the conservation of energy
b) Kirchhoff’s first and second laws applied to electrical circuits
c) total resistance of two or more resistors in series; RT = R1 + R2 + …
d) total resistance of two or more resistors in parallel; 1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + …
e) analysis of circuits with components, including both series and parallel
f) analysis of circuits with more than one source of e.m.f.
4.3.2 Internal Resistance
a) source of e.m.f.; internal resistance
b) terminal p.d.; ‘lost volts’
c) (i) the equations ε = I(R+r) and ε = V + Ir
c) (ii) techniques and procedures used to determine the internal resistance of a chemical
cell or other source of e.m.f.
4.3.3 Potential Dividers
a) potential divider circuit with components
b) potential divider circuits with variable components e.g. LDR and thermistor
c) (i) potential divider equations e.g.
c) (ii) techniques and procedures used to investigate potential divider circuits which may
include a sensor such as a thermistor or an LDR.