Polytechnic of Namibia
School of Engineering Pg 1
Surface processes
Forces that acted on our natural earth back then are still reflected today.
Main contributing factors in earth shaping are: weathering & Erosion.
This is possible with the help of: Water, wind, ice & gravity
Weathering involves: Chemical, physical (Mechanical) & biological
1. Chemical weathering
1. Chemical: changes that alters the chemical & mineralogical composition
of a rock.
Commonly occurring processes in chemical weathering are: Solution,
Oxidation & Reduction(Redox), Hydration, Hydrolysis, Leaching & Ion
exchange.
February 2011 Engineering Geology 161
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Solution : Involves dissociation of soluble mineral (like Calcite, Gypsum) ions
accelerated by CO2 presence and meteoric water.
Redox: - due to the presence/ lack of dissolved O2 in water leading to crystal
instability. E.g. (Iron oxidation and reduction)
Hydration: Involves addition of water molecules to a mineral to form another mineral.
Hydrolysis: dissociation of water molecules to ions which in turn react with mineral ions.
Leaching: Migrations of mobile ions (eg K, Na, Ca ,Mg)
Ion Exhange: Exchange of ions between the solution & the mineral. (eg exchange
of sodium for calcium)
February 2011 Engineering Geology 161
Polytechnic of Namibia
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2. Physical/mechanical weathering
As a result of Temperature, impacts, wind
Commonly occurring processes: Unloading, Frost wedging(heaving),Thermal
(Insolation), Wetting & drying.
Unloading: Release of confining pressure due to erosion of overlying strata
Frost wedging: repeated freezing of H2O in rock fabrics, fractures:
Thermal (Insolation): Alternate expansion & contraction of the rock due to
temperature change.
Wetting & drying: Alternate wetting & drying of poorly cemented rocks:
February 2011 Engineering Geology 161 Pg 3
Polytechnic of Namibia
School of Engineering Pg 4
February 2011 Engineering Geology 161 Pg 3
Polytechnic of Namibia
School of Engineering
Pg 5
Erosion
Is the transportation of surface particles via erosion agents ( water, wind, gravity,
glacial & waves).
Factors affecting soil erosion
1) Rainfall (Intensity, duration)
2) Soil Characteristics (Porosity, permeability, moisture, grain size, shape)
3) Topography (slope orientation, slope angle, slope length)
4) Vegetation (Type & distribution on slope)
February 2011 Engineering Geology 161
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School of Engineering Pg 6
Work of rivers on surface:
erosion by rivers result in valley deepening.
Materials carried in suspensions & solution (responsible for salinity)
Shapes pebbles by abrasion
Valleys:
Land formed by uplift
Excavated by streams depending on the slopes & hardness!
Grade & rejuvenation
The river continues to reduce irregularities of its base until maturity (stage of grade)
After uplift irregularities begin & this is known as rejuvenating.
February 2011 Engineering Geology 161
Polytechnic of Namibia
School of Engineering Pg 7
Water falls - formed where a river flows over rocks differing in hardness.
River patterns –Influenced by position & shape of boundaries separating various rocks
Types of river patterns
1)Dendritic (like brain veins)
2) Rectangular
3)Dissappearing (e.g. in soluble rocks)
4) Radial (caused by uplift of the area)
5) Super imposed
February 2011 Engineering Geology 161
Polytechnic of Namibia
School of Engineering Pg 8
River deposits
Basic forms are: 1- In the river (during normal periods of flow)
2- On flood plains
3- Across the floor of an estuary, with sediments carried by the sea
4 – At Deltas
Alluvium – Any deposits by the rivers (e.g. silt, mud , coarse sand, gravel etc)
Deltas: formed when a river enters, sea, lake or any form of water.
- Load is deposited due to reduced velocity.
February 2011 Engineering Geology 161
Polytechnic of Namibia
School of Engineering Pg 9
Sea Works
Sea waves do erode land at the shore through –Tides and currents; Tidal surges;
Waves
Tides and currents – due to the pull exerted by the moon.
Tidal surges – sudden movement of the water which may eventuall just
disappear
Waves – caused by wind, sweeping water surface.
February 2011 Engineering Geology 161
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School of Engineering Pg 10
Coastal erosion
Wave cut platform
Atmospheric denudation- weakens cliff’s upper part
Coastal marine deposits
Types of coastal deposits (self reading)
February 2011 Engineering Geology 161
Polytechnic of Namibia
School of Engineering Pg 11
Wind erosion
Prone in hot, dry climate (especially deserts)
Dust particles blown at greater distances
Sand dunes form when wind fails to keep the particles in suspension.
Wind blown sand = Eolian sand
Well graded grains in size
Wind- formed deposits
Coastal sand hills – piles of wind blown sand in some coastal regions with
prevailing winds. They move slowly, movement evidence from maps.
Desert dunes – classified between (Draas, Dunes, ripples) according to
wavelength, Amplitude: dunes develop on Draas, ripples on dunes
Loess- Fine grained wind blown clay deposits.
February 2011 Engineering Geology 161
Polytechnic of Namibia
School of Engineering Pg 12
Erosion by Ice
Ice – formed by compaction of snow
Most of the glacial deposits happened during the Pleistocene epoch.
Land ice may meet the sea and float
Any melting result in the ice-carried load being dropped, hence deposited
Transport by ice & Moraine
Fallen debris from ice in valleys are called Moraines
Lateral moraine - Debris parallel to the sides of a glacier
Medial moraine – Debris formed when a tributary enters a main valley.
Glacial erosion, glacial deposits : Self reading!!!
February 2011 Engineering Geology 161
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School of Engineering Pg 13
Other mass transport
In addition to agents such as rivers, sea, wind & ice, 3 major agents of
engineering importance are: rainfall, ground water & slope instability.
Rainfall: due to the mechanical impact by the falling rain, dislodging loose rocks, soil.
( e.g. rain wash- creating gullies as a result)
ground water & : Infiltration of rainfall to provoke chemical weathering, removing
tones of solid matter by the ground water;
slope instability: Mass movement of materials transported down the slope by creep.
(e.g. Avalanches of rock or snow)
February 2011 Engineering Geology 161