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Data Communications
06 – Digital Data Communications
Techniques
Asynchronous and Synchronous
Transmission
• timing problems require a mechanism to
synchronize the transmitter and receiver
– receiver samples stream at bit intervals
– if clocks not aligned and drifting will sample at
wrong time after sufficient bits are sent
• two solutions to synchronizing clocks
– asynchronous transmission
– synchronous transmission
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Asynchronous Transmission
Asynchronous - Behavior
• simple
• cheap
• overhead of 2 or 3 bits per char (~20%)
• good for data with large gaps (keyboard)
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Synchronous Transmission
• block of data transmitted sent as a frame
• clocks must be synchronized
– can use separate clock line
– or embed clock signal in data
• need to indicate start and end of block
– use preamble and postamble
• more efficient (lower overhead) than async
Types of Error
• an error occurs when a bit is altered between
transmission and reception
• single bit errors
– only one bit altered
– caused by white noise
• burst errors
– contiguous sequence of B bits in which first last and any
number of intermediate bits in error
– caused by impulse noise or by fading in wireless
– effect greater at higher data rates
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Error Detection
• will have errors
• detect using error-detecting code
• added by transmitter
• recalculated and checked by receiver
• still chance of undetected error
• parity
– parity bit set so character has even (even parity)
or odd (odd parity) number of ones
– even number of bit errors goes undetected
Error Detection Process
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Cyclic Redundancy Check
• one of most common and powerful checks
• for block of k bits transmitter generates an n
bit frame check sequence (FCS)
• transmits k+n bits which is exactly divisible by
some number
• receiver divides frame by that number
– if no remainder, assume no error
– for math, see Stallings chapter 6
Error Correction
• correction of detected errors usually requires data
block to be retransmitted
• not appropriate for wireless applications
– bit error rate is high causing lots of retransmissions
– when propagation delay long (satellite) compared with
frame transmission time, resulting in retransmission of
frame in error plus many subsequent frames
• instead need to correct errors on basis of bits
received
• error correction provides this
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Error Correction Process
How Error Correction Works
• adds redundancy to transmitted message
• can deduce original despite some errors
• eg. block error correction code
– map k bit input onto an n bit codeword
– each distinctly different
– if get error assume codeword sent was closest to
that received
• for math, see Stallings chapter 6
• means have reduced effective data rate
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Line Configuration - Topology
• physical arrangement of stations on medium
– point to point - two stations
• such as between two routers / computers
– multi point - multiple stations
• traditionally mainframe computer and terminals
• now typically a local area network (LAN)
Line Configuration - Topology
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Line Configuration - Duplex
• classify data exchange as half or full duplex
• half duplex (two-way alternate)
– only one station may transmit at a time
– requires one data path
• full duplex (two-way simultaneous)
– simultaneous transmission and reception between two
stations
– requires two data paths
• separate media or frequencies used for each direction
– or echo canceling
Summary
• asynchronous verses synchronous
transmission
• error detection and correction
• line configuration issues