Change and Evolution

Diversity of Hinduism
Modern Hinduism can in part be traced to
indigenous Indian practices several thousands of
years old. What we now call Hinduism was once
known as—and in many places is still preferred
to be known as—Sanatan Dharma. Sanatan means
eternal. Dharma may be translated as religion,
law, order, duty, or ethics. Sanatan Dharma may be
thought of as meaning the eternal path or way of
life.
Sanatan Dharma was impacted upon by the arrival
of Proto Indo-European speaking tribes from
the Middle East and north, approximately four
thousand years ago.
Due in part to its long life, the historical record
surrounding Hinduism is not only complex and
multi-faceted, but also fragmented and a matter
of continuing debate. Many Hindus focus less
on attempting to work out accurate historical
reconstructions than on the challenges and
opportunities posed by the interaction of their
Figure 13: Shiva Bhagavad Gita beliefs and faith in the world today.

God and Gender in Hinduism

In Hinduism, god is conceptualized in different ways with respect to gender.
For many, their focus is upon an impersonal Absolute (Brahman) which is
genderless. Some Hindu traditions see god as being androgynous, having both
female and male aspects. Alternatively a supreme god may be seen to be either
male or female while embracing gender henotheism; that is without denying
the existence of other gods in either gender. The Shakti tradition conceives
of god as a female. Other Bhakti traditions of Hinduism have both male and
female gods. In ancient and medieval Indian mythology, each masculine Deva
(god) of the Hindu pantheon was partnered with a feminine Devi (god).

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 As well, in the Hindu narrative tradition, there is great gender fluidity and
there are stories of gods and humans changing gender. For example, the epic
Mahabharata features the transgender character Sikhandin, and describes the
warrior Arjuna cross-dressing to become Brihannala, teacher of fine arts.
Lesbian, gay, and transgender Hindus commonly identify with and worship
the various Hindu deities connected with gender diversity. A few examples of
these deities follow:
Q Ardhanarisvara, the androgynous form of Shiva and his consort Parvati
Q Aravan, a hero whom the god Krishna married after becoming a woman
Q Harihara, an incarnation of Shiva and Vishnu combined
Q Gadadhara, an incarnation of Radha in male form
Q Bhagavati-devi, a Hindu goddess associated with cross-dressing
Within Hindu philosophy there is also a concept of a third sex or third gender
(tritiya-prakriti—literally, “third nature”). This third gender category includes a
wide range of persons with mixed male and female natures. The third genders
and aspects of their lives varies by region and culture. Third gender sects
include the Hijra of Northern India, the Aravani or Ali of the Tamil Nadu in
southern India, and the Jogappa also in southern India.
However, in some cases the third gender lived in their own communities and
were considered separate from the binary male and female genders.
Many argue that traditional Vedic culture allowed transgender people of
the third gender to live openly according to their gender identity. Hijras
participated in religious ceremonies, especially as cross-dressing dancers
and devotees of certain temple gods/goddesses, and this was considered
auspicious in traditional Hinduism. However, contemporary attitudes towards
transgender persons or the third gender can vary greatly among different
Hindu organizations and societies.

36 Hinduism: A Supplemental Resource for Grade 12 World of Religions: A Canadian Perspective

 Worship of Specific Gods
While there are many forms of Hinduism, it is possible to partially organize
the tradition into three groups. These groups are distinguished by the
embodied, personal form of The Brahman they worship in particular. The
groups are Vaishnavites (they worship primarily Vishnu and the incarnations of
Vishnu: Ram and Krishna), Saivites (they worship primarily Shiva), and Shaktas
(they worship primarily the feminine power of the Divine, the Shakti).
Vaishnavites give particular consideration to The Brahman as embodied in
Vishnu. In the cycle of creation, preservation, and destruction, Vishnu occupies
the middle role, that of the guard or preserver of existence. He is often
understood and depicted as merciful, kind, and generous. Ram and Krishna
are the popular, much-loved incarnation of the god Vishnu.
Shaivites worship Shiva (or Siva) as the supreme embodiment of the Divine.
In contrast to Vishnu, Shiva is often understood as a god of destruction. This,
however, is not meant in a negative sense, but as an essential part of the
cycle of existence. Shiva is the Lord of Peace and is called upon to destroy
the characteristics or qualities that prevent peace. Shiva is often connected
to ascetic practices such as various forms of yoga and meditation and, in
general, to ascetic figures. In Hindu narrative, Shiva and his wife Parvati are
the parents to Ganesha, depicted with the head of an elephant. Ganesha is
often called upon for auspicious events (especially those related to beginnings
or openings, such blessings as marriages, the birth of a child, entering a new
home, and so forth).
Shaktas worship various feminine expressions of the Divine. These expressions
may be depicted as Durga, a gentle and beautiful woman bearing arms, or as
Kali, a fierce and violent-looking figure. In each case, the goddess in question
not only plays an essential part in both destruction and death, but also life,
birth, and rebirth.
Charts providing an overview of the male and female forms of the major
deities as well as some of the more popular deities follow.

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 Principal Hindu Gods and Goddesses
The Trimurti (Hindu Trinity)
Brahma—The Creator
Supreme god in diverse versions of Hinduism. Usually credited as
being the creator of the universe.
Distinguishing Features:
Brahma is traditionally depicted with four faces, each pointing to
a cardinal direction, and four hands. The hands hold symbols of
knowledge and creation; one hand holds the Vedas, the second
holds mālā (rosary beads), the third holds a ladle, and the fourth
holds a utensil with water. The four mouths are credited with
creating the four Vedas. Often depicted with a white beard,
implying his sage-like experience. Brahma sits on a lotus, is
dressed in white (or red, pink), and has his vehicle (vahana)—
hansa, a swan, or goose—nearby.

Vishnu—The Preserver/Protector
In Vaishnism Hinduism, he is the Supreme Being.
Distinguishing Features:
Vishnu is usually depicted as having a dark or pale blue
complexion and four arms. He holds a padma (lotus flower) in
his lower left hand, kaumodaki gada (mace) in his lower right
hand, panchajanya shankha (conch) in his upper left hand, and
the sudarshana chakra (discus) in his upper right hand. Often
depicted reclining on the coils of Ananta, accompanied by his
consort devi Lakshmi as he dreams the universe into reality.

Shiva—The Destroyer/Transformer
He is a Supreme Being within the Shaivism tradition of Hinduism
and has many benevolent and fearsome depictions. He is
depicted as an omniscient yogi who lives an ascetic life on
Mount Kailash along with his wife Parvati and their two children,
Ganesha and Kartikeya. He is also often depicted slaying demons.
Known also as Adiyogi Shiva, he is the patron god of yoga,
meditation, and arts.
Distinguishing Features:
Shiva has a third eye on his forehead, the serpent around his
neck, the adorning crescent moon, the holy river Ganga flowing
from his matted hair, the trishula as his weapon, and the damaru.

38 Hinduism: A Supplemental Resource for Grade 12 World of Religions: A Canadian Perspective

 Principal Hindu Gods and Goddesses
Shaktis (Trivedi of Female Forms)
Saraswati—Goddess of Knowledge, Arts, Wisdom, and
Learning
She is worshipped throughout Nepal and India.
Distinguishing Features:
Saraswati is usually depicted as a beautiful woman dressed in
pure white, seated on a white lotus, often near a flowing river
or other body of water and usually shown with four arms. When
shown with four hands, they symbolically mirror husband
Brahma’s four heads. The items held in the four hands are a
pustaka (book or script), a mālā (rosary, garland), a water pot, and
a musical instrument (vīnā). A hamsa or swan, a citramekhala, is
often next to her feet.

Lakshmi—Goddess of Wealth, Health, Fortune, and

Prosperity
Wife and shakti (energy) of Vishnu. She is endowed with six
important and divine qualities, or gunas. Ancient scriptures of
India view all women to be embodiments of Lakshmi.
Distinguishing Features:
Lakshmi is often depicted elegantly dressed in a red dress
embroidered with golden threads. She typically stands or sits like
a yogin on a lotus pedestal and holds lotuses in her hands. Her
four hands represent the four goals of human life kharma, kāma,
artha, and moksha. She is sometimes shown with an elephant
and occasionally with an owl .

Parvati (also known as Uma)—The Divine Mother;

Goddess of Fertility, Love, and Devotion
She is the central deity of the Shakti sect, the wife of Shiva, the
daughter of the mountain king Himavan and queen Mena. She is
the mother of Hindu deities Ganesha and Kartikeya.
Distinguishing Features:
Parvati is usually depicted as fair and beautiful, with golden skin,
wearing a red sari, and sometimes a headband. When with Shiva,
she is shown with two arms, but when she is alone, she may have
four. Her hands may hold a conch, crown, mirror, rosary, bell, dish,
farming tool such as goad, sugarcane stalk, or flowers. One of
the arms may be in the abhaya mudra gesture (fear not). Often,
Ganesha is on her knee while her younger son Skanda may be
playing nearby.

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 Other Popular Hindu Gods and Goddesses
Ganesha (also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka, or
Binayak)—Remover of Obstacles, Patron of Arts and
Sciences, and Deva of Intellect and Wisdom
He is one of the best-known and most worshiped deities. As
god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rituals and
ceremonies.
Distinguishing Features:
Ganesha is almost always depicted with an elephant head. He
may be shown in different poses—standing, dancing, fighting
demons, playing with his family as a boy, and sitting down or
on an elevated seat. Often depicted with four arms, he is usually
holding an axe or a goad and a pasha (noose) in the upper arms.

Rama (also known as Ramachandra)—Avatar of Vishnu/

Supreme Being
He is a major deity (especially in Vaishnavism) and the seventh
avatar (incarnation) of the god Vishnu. For some sects he is the
Supreme Being, the central figure of the ancient epic Ramayana.
Distinguishing Features:
Rama shares some similarities with depictions of Vishnu and
other avatars. Always depicted with two hands, he is often shown
holding a bana (arrow) in his right hand, a dhanus (bow) in his
left. He is usually standing in tribhanga pose (thrice bent “S”
shape) with black, blue, or dark colour skin and may be shown
with wife Sita and brother Lakshamana .

Hanuman—Patron of Martial Arts and Meditation,

Ardent Devotee of Rama
He is a central character in the epic Ramayana, and is admired
for his combination of supernatural abilities, strength, heroic
initiative, assertive excellence, and devotion to his personal god
Rama. He symbolizes the human virtues of inner self-control,
faith, and service.
Distinguishing Features:
Hanuman has monkey-like facial features, and is often depicted
with other main characters of the Ramayana. In group images, he
appears bowing or kneeling before Rama with a namaste (anjali
hasta) posture. He often carries weapons such as a big gada
(mace) and thunderbolt (vajra).

40 Hinduism: A Supplemental Resource for Grade 12 World of Religions: A Canadian Perspective

 Other Popular Hindu Gods and Goddesses
Durga (also known as Devi or Shakti)—The Warrior
Goddess
She is a fierce warrior who battles against evil and demonic
forces that threaten peace, prosperity, and the dharma of the
good. She is the fierce form of the protective mother goddess
and a central deity in the Shaktism tradition.
Distinguishing Features:
Durga is often depicted with many arms, each carrying a
weapon, riding on a lion or a tiger, and attacking the demon
Mahisha. She appears as the wife of Shiva, as another Parvati. The
weapons she holds are from various Hindu Gods, given to her to
fight the evil forces and include chakra, conch, bow, arrow, sword,
javelin, shield, and noose.

Kali (Kalika)—The Destroyer and Liberator of Souls

Believed to be misunderstood in the West, she is the most
compassionate goddess because she provides moksha or
liberation. She is the counterpart of Shiva the destroyer, both are
destroyers of unreality.
Distinguishing Features:
Kali is often depicted half-naked, with a garland of skulls, a belt
of severed limbs; and waving scary-looking weapons with two
of her 10 hands. She is often dancing on a prostrate Shiva, who
looks up at her admiringly. Two of Kali’s hands are empty and in
the mudras (gestures) of protection and fearlessness. Her tongue
is stuck out to swallow up evil and negative thoughts.

Surya (also known as Aditya, Arka, Bhanu, Savitr,

Pushan, Ravi, Martanda, Mitra, or Vivasvan)—God of
the Sun
He is the solar deity in Hinduism and is one of the five deities
considered as equivalent aspects and means to realizing
Brahman in the Smarta Tradition.
Distinguishing Features:
Surya is often depicted riding a chariot pulled by seven horses,
which represent the seven colour rays of the rainbow. In
medieval Hinduism, Surya is also an epithet for the major Hindu
gods, Shiva and Vishnu. In some ancient texts and artwork, Surya
is presented syncretically with Indra, Ganesha, or others.

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 Other Popular Hindu Gods and Goddesses
Krishna (also known as Govinda, Mukunda,
Vasudeva)—God of Compassion, Love, and Tenderness
He is one of the most revered and popular deities and is
worshipped as the eighth incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu.
He is the central character in the Bhagavata Purana and the
Bhagavad Gita.
Distinguishing Features:
Krishna is depicted in diverse ways by different Hindu sects, but
with some common features. He is usually shown with black,
dark, or blue skin, like Vishnu, and is often wearing a peacock-
feather wreath or crown, and playing the bansuri (Indian flute).
When standing, he is usually shown in the tribhanga pose
(graceful and sensuous pose). He may be accompanied by a cow
or a calf, symbolizing the divine herdsman Govinda and is often
depicted as a loving person, in the company of gopis (milkmaids),
making music or playing pranks.

Murugan (also known as Kartikeya, Skanda, Kumara,

or Vishakha)—God of War; Hunter, Warrior, and
Philosopher
He is the son of Parvati and Shiva, and the brother of Ganesha
and is a god whose life story has many versions in Hinduism. He
is a primary deity in temples of Tamil people worldwide.
Distinguishing Features:
Murugan is typically depicted as a youthful man, riding on or
near a peacock and sometimes near a rooster. He is mostly shown
with one head, but may have six heads reflecting the legends
associated with his birth where six mothers took care of the
newly born baby. He is dressed as a warrior, carrying a weapon
called vel/saktii, a divine spear and is sometimes shown with
several weapons: a sword, a javelin, a mace, a discus, and a bow.

In addition to groups organized around devotional/worship practice, it is

also possible to categorize Hindu practice by way of philosophical systems
and understandings. Hindu philosophy refers to a group of darshanas,
world views, or teachings that emerged in ancient India. Mainstream Hindu
philosophy usually includes six systems or saddarshana: Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya,
Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta. These are also called the Astika (orthodox)
philosophical traditions and are those that accept the Vedas as an authoritative
source of knowledge. Each of these philosophical systems also has sub-schools
that integrate ideas from two or more of the six orthodox philosophies.

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 Other philosophies, that are related or share similar concepts, but rejected
the Vedas, also emerged from ancient and medieval India. These have been
called nastika (heterodox or non-orthodox) Indian philosophies. Nastika Indian
philosophies include Buddhism, Jainism, Carvaka, Ajivika, and others.
For most purposes, Samkhya, Yoga, and Vedanta are of particular importance
because of their influence on contemporary Hinduism.
Samkhya, the oldest of the systems, understands existence from a dualistic
perspective. Its founder, a sage-philosopher named Kapila, put forth the idea
that suffering is the result of misunderstanding two basic levels of existence
or reality. One is eternal, unchanging, uncreated, and pure. The other is the
material universe which we inhabit and directly experience. Suffering, then,
comes about when we identify with the material universe, or misunderstand
elements of it as belonging to the eternal. One of the goals of Samkhya is to
assist the devotee in properly understanding each plane of existence and
focusing one’s attention on the transcendent realm of eternity.
Yoga is closely linked to many ideas from Samkhya. The goal is to have a vibrant
life and lead a path to enlightenment. Yogic practice aims to enable this type of
realization through both mental and physical practices. There are four forms
of yoga practices (Gyan yoga—intellectual discipline, Bhakti yoga—devotional
discipline, karma yoga—daily routine and practice, and Raja yoga—meditative
and consciousness practice). These include moral and ethical codes of conduct,
non-violence, proper breathing and posture, meditation, study, devotion, and
mind and body control, amongst many other practices. Yogic practices were
likely systematized by around 200 BCE.
The third philosophical system, Vedanta, is constructed upon the teachings
of the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras from the first millennium BCE. It is
considered to be the most developed and well-known of the Hindu schools.
The emergence of the Vedanta school represented a period when a more
knowledge-centered understanding began to emerge within Hinduism. The
focus became on gyan (knowledge) driven aspects of the Vedic religion and the
Upanishads. This included metaphysical concepts such as Atman and Brahman,
and emphasized meditation, self-discipline, self-knowledge, and abstract
spirituality, rather than ritualism. However, the Upanishads were interpreted
differently by various ancient and medieval era Vedanta scholars leading to
several distinct branches. These Vedanta branches range from theistic dualism
to non-theistic monism, each branch interpreting the texts in its own way and
producing its own series of understandings.
The Advaita branch sub-school of Vedanta, asserts spiritual and universal non-
dualism. Advaita literally means “not two, sole, or unity”. Its belief system
is a form of absolute monism in which all ultimate reality is interconnected
oneness. The Advaita Vedanta School is the oldest and most widely
acknowledged Vedantic school.

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 In addition to changes in the internal diversity of Hinduism, the tradition
has also had many contacts with other religions, cultures, and belief systems.
Some of these have been peaceful and productive; others involved repression,
violence, and fear.
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries CE, portions of India came under
Muslim rule. While this rule was at times violent, intolerant, and marked by
friction, it was somewhat inclusive of the native Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist
populations. The legacy of the Muslim conquest of South Asia has been a
widely debated issue that continues today. Many Hindus believe that Muslim
rule was marked by widespread violence and destruction, and brutally forced
conversions of Hindus to Islam. However, not all Muslims were simply raiders.
Later rulers fought not only to win kingdoms, but also stayed to create new
ruling dynasties. These new rulers and their subsequent heirs (some of whom
were born of Hindu wives of Muslim rulers) varied considerably in their
practices and approaches. While some were uniformly hated, others were
esteemed and developed popular followings. The Mogul Muslim Empire
was eventually replaced by British colonial rule. In 1857, India came under
direct rule of Britain. The British, who were at first relatively accepting of
the dominant Hindu and other Indian religions, eventually actively worked
to convert the Indian population to Christianity. Several Hindu social
institutions, notably the caste system, were formally abolished.

44 Hinduism: A Supplemental Resource for Grade 12 World of Religions: A Canadian Perspective