Unit 2 Syllabus

 PN Junction diodes, Diode Characteristics, Diode approximation

 Clippers and Clampers

 Rectifiers: Half wave, Full wave: Centre taped, Bridge

 Zener diode, Design of regulator and characteristics

 Optoelectronics devices

 Introduction to BJT

 BJT characteristics and configurations

 Transistor as a switch
 Semiconductor Materials
• Semiconductors are materials whose conductivity lies between conductors and insulators.

Representation of conductors, Semiconductors, Insulators in terms of electrical resistance

Representation of conductors, Semiconductors, Insulators in terms of Energy band gap
 Semiconductors
• Semiconductors are materials whose conductivity lies between conductors and insulators.

• Gallium arsenide, germanium and silicon are some of the most commonly used semiconductors.

• Silicon is used in electronic circuit fabrication, and gallium arsenide is used in solar cells, laser diodes,
etc.

• Holes and electrons are the types of charge carriers accountable for the flow of current in
semiconductors.

• Holes (valence electrons) are the positively charged electric charge carrier, whereas electrons are the
negatively charged particles.

• Both electrons and holes are equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity.

• Semiconductors are classified as intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic semiconductors.

• Extrinsic semiconductors are further classified as N-type and P-type semiconductors.

 Intrinsic semiconductors
• Based on the level of purity, semiconductors are
classified into intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
• Semiconductors that are chemically pure, in other
words, free from impurities are termed as intrinsic
semiconductors.
• They are also termed as undoped semiconductors or
i-type semiconductors.
• Silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) are examples of i-
type semiconductors.
• These elements belong to the IVth Group of the
periodic table and their atomic numbers are 14 and
32 respectively.
 Extrinsic semiconductors
• The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor depends on the surrounding temperature.

• At room temperature, it exhibits a low conductivity.

• Due to its low conductivity, it is unsuitable for use in electronic devices.

• In order to deal with this problem, the concept of doping arose, and as a result of which, extrinsic
semiconductors were manufactured.

• A small amount of suitable impurity is added to pure material, increasing its conductivity by many
times.

• Doping: The process of adding impurities is termed as doping.

• Extrinsic semiconductors are also called impurity semiconductors or doped semiconductors.

• While doping tetravalent atoms such as Si or
Ge, two types of dopants are used,

• Pentavalent atoms: Atoms with valency 5; such

as Arsenic (As), Phosphorous (Pi), Antimony
(Sb), etc.

• Trivalent atoms: Atoms with valency 3; such as

Indium (In), Aluminum (Al), Boron (B), etc.

• These dopants give rise to two types of

semiconductors:

• n-type semiconductors

• p-type semiconductors
 PN Junction diode
• The P-N junction is formed between the p-type and the n-type semiconductors.
• In a semiconductor, the P-N junction is created by the method of doping.
• The p-side or the positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes, and the n-side
or the negative side has an excess of electrons.
How does current flow in the PN junction diode?

• The flow of electrons from the n-side towards the p-side of the junction takes place when
there is an increase in the voltage.
• Similarly, the flow of holes from the p-side towards the n-side of the junction takes place
along with the increase in the voltage.
• This results in the concentration gradient between both sides of the terminals.
• Due to the concentration gradient formation, charge carriers will flow from higher-
concentration regions to lower-concentration regions.
• The movement of charge carriers inside the P-N junction is the reason behind the current
flow in the circuit.
 Biasing Conditions for the P-N Junction Diode
• There are three biasing conditions for the P-N junction diode, and this is based on the
voltage applied:

• Zero bias: No external voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode.

• Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type
while the negative terminal is connected to the n-type.

• Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type, and
the positive is connected to the n-type.

• Depletion region: also known as the depletion layer or Space charge region.

• Is a region in a p-n junction diode where mobile charge carriers, like electrons and holes, are
absent. It is filled with immobile charge carries.
Diode in Forward Bias

Barrier Voltage: Barrier voltage, also

known as barrier potential, cut-in
voltage, or knee voltage or threshold
voltage.
 Is the minimum voltage required
to start current in a P-N junction
diode.
VB=0.6V or 600mV (Si)
VB=0.3V or 300mV (Ge)
Diode in Reverse Bias
• In reverse bias condition , the p-type
of the PN junction is connected to the
negative terminal and n-type is
connected to the positive terminal of
the external voltage.
• This results in increased potential
barrier at the junction.
• The junction resistance becomes very
high and as a result practically no
current flows through the circuit.
 V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode

 Reverse breakdown voltage: The

reverse voltage at which the
breakdown of junction takes place
and reverse current rapidly increases.
 Reverse saturation current :
• Is the small current that flows
through the diode when it is reverse-
biased.
• This current is caused by the thermal
generation of minority charge
carriers within the semiconductor
material.
  Applications of P-N Junction Diode

• P-N junction diode can be used as a photodiode as the diode is sensitive to light when the
configuration of the diode is reverse-biased.
• It can be used as a solar cell.
• When the diode is forward-biased, it can be used in LED lighting applications.
• It is used as a rectifier in many electric circuits and as a voltage-controlled oscillator in
varactors.
• Used in clipper and clamper circuits
 What are Diode Approximations?

 Definition: The approximation technique helps in analyzing the various initial criteria of
the diode can be defined as Diode Approximations.
• Each approximation relates from assuming ideal conditions to reaching practical ones.
 Types of Diode Approximations
The diode approximation can be made in three methods using first, second, and third.
I. First Approximation
• In the first situation of approximating the Diode considered to be in Ideal mode.
• It means there is zero Internal Resistance and doesn’t have any consuming voltage.
• This indicates that Diode in Ideal mode is a Perfect Version of Switch.

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• Generally, in the theoretical analysis, we
can use this concept but practically this
situation is impossible.

II. Second Approximation

• The first condition is about the Ideal Mode of the
Diode.
• It doesn’t require any initial voltage to turn it into ON.
• But in the second case, it prefers a certain amount of
voltage to turn the Diode ON.

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 In this case of second approximation, the diode can be made to function as a switch by
applying the cut-off voltages.
 For example, if silicon is the semiconductor material used. Then, in this case, if the voltage
applied exceeds 0.7 volts, the diode is in ON mode.
 If it is below the minimum voltage, then the diode is in OFF mode. Therefore, in this way
diode acts as a switch.

III. Third Approximation

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 In this approximation, the cut-off voltage along with some Internal Resistance across the
Diode is observed.
 This condition exists in the practical application in the design of circuits. This type of
resistance can be referred to as Bulk Resistance.
 It is dependent upon the amount of the forward voltages and forward currents applied to
the diode. This approximation is also known as Piece-wise Linear Model.
 Diode Approximation Problem with Solution

By using the appropriate Model of Approximation, find the value of the magnitude of the
current. The diode used is of silicon type. The Diode current can be found by using the
equation ID = (V- VD) / R
= (5-0.7) / 1
= 4.3 Amperes
 Clippers
• Clipper circuit is used to limit the amplitude of the input signal by clipping the part without
affecting the remaining signal.
• It is desirable in some applications of electronics that excessive voltage should not pass through the
components as they may get demolished. Thus, a particular value is obtained by reducing the
amplitude of the signal using a clipper circuit.

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Classification of Clippers
 Series Positive Clippers

During Positive half cycle, D R.B  O.C  V0=0

During Negative half cycle, D F.B  S.C  V0=Vi

Series Positive Clipper with positive bias
Positive half cycle,
Vi < VB D F.B  S.C  V0=Vi
Vi > VB D R.B  O.C  V0=0
Negative half cycle,
DF.B  S.C  V0=Vi

Series Positive Clipper with negative bias

Positive half cycle,
DR.B  O.C  V0=0
Negative half cycle,
Vi < VB D F.B  S.C  V0=Vi
Vi > VB D R.B  O.C  V0=0
 Series Negative Clippers

During Positive half cycle, D F.B  S.C  V0=Vi

During Negative half cycle, D R.B  O.C  V0=0

Series Negative Clippers with Positive bias
Positive half cycle,
Vi < VB D R.B  O.C  V0=0
Vi > VB D F.B  S.C  V0=Vi
Negative half cycle,
DR.B  O.C  V0=0

Series Negative Clippers with Negative bias

Positive half cycle,
DF.B  S.C  V0=Vi
Negative half cycle,
Vi < VB D R.B  O.C  V0=0
Vi > VB D F.B  S.C  V0=Vi
Parallel ( Shunt) Clippers
Note: When the diode in F.B current
flow through S.C path , so current
through RL is Zero

Shunt Positive Clipper

Positive half cycle, D F.B  S.C  V0=0

Negative half cycle, D R.B  O.C  V0=Vi

Shunt Negative Clipper

Positive half cycle, D R.B  O.C  V0=Vi

Negative half cycle, D F.B  S.C  V0=0

Shunt Positive Clippers with positive bias
Positive half cycle,
Vi < VB D R.B  O.C  V0=Vi
Vi > VB D F.B  S.C  V0=0
Negative half cycle,
DR.B  O.C  V0=Vi

Shunt Positive Clipper with negative bias

Positive half cycle,
D F.B  S.C  V0=0
Negative half cycle,
Vi < VB D F.B  S.C  V0=0
Vi > VB D R.B  O.C  V0=Vi
 Shunt Negative Clipper with positive bias

Positive half cycle,

Vi < VB D F.B  S.C  V0=0
Vi > VB D R.B  O.C  V0=Vi
Negative half cycle,
DF.B  S.C  V0=0

Shunt Negative Clipper with Negative bias

Positive half cycle,

D R.B  O.C  V0=Vi
Negative half cycle,
Vi < VB D R.B  O.C  V0=Vi
Vi > VB D F.B  S.C  V0=0
 Dual Clippers
• When a portion of both the positive and negative input cycle needs to be cut off, this
technique is used.
 Clampers
• A Clamper circuit can be defined as the circuit that shifts the waveform to a desired DC level
without changing the actual appearance of the applied signal.
• Is a circuit that adds a DC level to an AC signal.
• The positive and negative peaks of the signals can be placed at desired levels using the clamping
circuits.
• As the DC level gets shifted, a clamper circuit is called as a Level Shifter.
• Types of Clampers:
 Based on DC-level shifting properties the clamper circuits are classified into three types
• Positive Clamper

• Negative Clamper

• Biased Clampers
• A clamper circuit subtracts or adds a DC component to the input signal.

• If a positive DC component is added to the input signal input is pushed toward the positive side

• On the other hand, in the case of a negative DC component it is pushed toward the negative side.

• Note: Clamper blocks the input signal when the diode is forward-biased and transfers the

input signal to the output when the diode is reverse-biased.

For clamping operation

D F.B S.C C Charging V0=0

D R.B O.C Discharging V0=Vi+VC

 Positive Clamper circuit

• The diode is forward-biased during the

Negative half cycle of the input AC signal so
no signal appears at the output.
• The diode will allow current to flow through
it in the forward-biased condition that will
charge the capacitor to its maximum value
with inverse polarity (-Vm ).

• During the negative cycle when the diode is reverse biased, no current flows through the diode
therefore at the output end voltage appears as the sum of input voltage and voltage stored in the
capacitor
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑐

𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑚 + 𝑉𝑚 = 2𝑉𝑚
 Negative Clamper circuit
• The diode is forward-biased during the
positive half cycle of the input AC signal so
no signal appears at the output.
• The diode will allow current to flow through
it in the forward-biased condition that will
charge the capacitor to its maximum value
with inverse polarity (-Vm ).

• During the negative cycle when the diode is reverse biased, no current flows through the diode
therefore at the output end voltage appears as the sum of input voltage and voltage stored in the
capacitor
VO= -Vm -Vm  V0 =-2Vm
 Biased Clampers

 Biased Clampers working is similar to positive and negative clampers only difference is
the addition of a DC Voltage battery in the circuit.

 These Clampers are used when an additional shift of the DC level is required. These are
of four types

• Positive clamper with positive bias

• Positive clamper with negative bias

• Negative clamper with positive bias

• Negative clamper with negative bias

 1. Positive Clamper Circuit with positive bias

During Negative half cycle Vi > VB

D F.B S.C C Charging
Apply KVL to the loop
𝑽𝟎 = 𝑽𝑩
𝑽𝒄 = 𝑽𝒊 + 𝑽𝑩

During Positive Half cycle

D R.B O.C C Discharging
Apply KVL to the loop
𝑽 𝟎 = 𝑽𝒊 + 𝑽𝒄
 2. Positive Clamper Circuit with Negative bias

During Negative half cycle Vi> VB

D F.B S.C C Charging
Apply KVL to the loop
𝑽𝟎 = 𝑽𝑩
𝑽𝒄 = 𝑽𝒊 − 𝑽 𝑩

During Positive Half cycle

D R.B O.C C Discharging
Apply KVL to the loop
𝑽𝟎 = 𝑽𝒊 + 𝑽𝒄
 3. Negative clamper with positive bias

During Positive half cycle Vi> VB

D F.B S.C C Charging
Apply KVL to the loop
𝑽𝟎 = 𝑽 𝑩
𝑽𝒄 = 𝑽𝒊 − 𝑽𝑩

During Negative half cycle

D R.B O.C C Discharging
Apply KVL to the loop
𝑽𝟎 = −𝑽𝒊 − 𝑽𝒄
 4. Negative clamper with negative bias

During Positive half cycle Vi> VB

D F.B S.C C Charging
Apply KVL to the loop
𝑽𝟎 = 𝑽𝑩
𝑽𝒄 = 𝑽𝒊 + 𝑽𝑩

During Negative half cycle

D R.B O.C C Discharging
Apply KVL to the loop
𝑽𝟎 = −𝑽𝒊 − 𝑽𝒄
 Rectifiers
• The main application of the p-n junction diode is in rectification circuits.
• Rectification: Conversion of A.C current into D.C.
 Components in a Rectifier Circuit:
 Diodes: Perform the rectification.

 Transformer: Steps up or steps down the input voltage.

 Filter (Capacitors or Inductors): Smoothens the pulsating DC to produce a steady output.

 Voltage Regulators: Ensure a consistent DC voltage level.

 There are two primary methods of diode rectification:

• Half Wave Rectifier (HWR)
• Full Wave Rectifier (FWR): (i) Centre tapped FWR
(ii) Bridge FWR
 Half-wave Rectifier (HWR)

• During the positive half cycle D F.B S.C V0=Vi

• During the negative half cycle  D R.B O.C V0=0

 Analysis of Half-wave Rectifier

(i) Average value or dc value of load current, Idc

Sinusoidal voltage is written as v = Vm sin θ
Sinusoidal current,
i = Im sin θ
where ‘i’ is the instantaneous value, Im is the maximum value, and q = wt.

Half-wave rectified current

• Idc is the average value of the rectified current.

(ii) DC Output Voltage Vdc:

Output voltage, Vdc across the load is

(iii) RMS Value of output AC Current:
(iv) Ripple Factor:

• The output of a half-wave rectifier is a pulsating dc.

• It has a steady dc component and an ac component
• The ac component is called the ripple
• Defined as the ratio of the rms value of ac component to the value of dc component.
• Ripple is an undesired effect and should be minimized

Ripple Factor, r= RMS value of ac component

value of dc component

𝐼𝑎𝑐
𝑟=
𝐼𝑑𝑐
(v) Rectifier efficiency:
It is calculated as the ratio of output power to input power.
 Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier Applications of Half Wave Rectifier
• Affordable The following are the uses of half-wave
• Simple connections rectification:
• Easy to use as the connections are simple • Power rectification: Half wave rectifier is used
• Number of components used is less along with a transformer for power rectification
 Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier as powering equipment.
• Ripple production is more • Signal demodulation: Used for demodulating
• Harmonics are generated the AM signals.
• Utilization of the transformer is very low •Signal peak detector: Used for detecting the
• The efficiency of rectification is low peak of the incoming waveform
• Working of FWR
• The input AC supplied to the full wave rectifier is very high. The step-down transformer in the rectifier
circuit converts the high voltage AC into low voltage AC.
• The anode of the Centre tapped diodes is connected to the transformer’s secondary winding and
connected to the load resistor. During the positive half cycle, diode D1 is forward biased as it is
connected to the top of the secondary winding while diode D2 is reverse biased as it is connected to
the bottom of the secondary winding.
• Due to this, diode D1 will conduct acting as a short circuit and D2 will not conduct acting as an open
circuit.
• During the negative half cycle, the diode D1 is reverse biased and the diode D2 is forward biased
because the top half of the secondary circuit becomes negative and the bottom half of the circuit
becomes positive.
• Thus, in a full wave rectifiers, DC voltage is obtained for both positive and negative half cycle.
 Full-wave Rectifier (FWR)

(i) Center tapped FWR

(ii) Bridge Full wave rectifier
 Positive half-cycle Negative half-cycle

D2, D4  F.B S.C V0=Vi D1, D3  F.B  S.C

V0=Vi
 Analysis of Full-wave Rectifiers
(i) Average value or dc value of load current, Idc

Average value or dc value of load current, Idc: The average value or dc value will be the same if
calculated for a period 0 to π or 0 to 2π
 (ii) DC Output Voltage Vdc:

Output voltage, Vdc

where RL is the load resistance, RF is the forward resistance of the diode, and R2 is the secondary
winding resistance of the transformer.
(iii) RMS Value of output AC Current:
(iv) Rectifier efficiency, η :
(v) Ripple Factor, r:
 Advantages of FWR
• The rectifier efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is high
• The power loss is very low
• Number of ripples generated is less
 Disadvantages of FWR
• Very expensive
 Applications of FWR
• Full-wave rectifiers are used for supplying polarized voltage in welding, and for this,
bridge rectifiers are used.
• Full-wave rectifiers are used for detecting the amplitude of modulated radio signals.
 Zener Diode
• A Zener Diode, also known as a breakdown diode, is a heavily doped semiconductor device
that is designed to operate in the reverse direction.

• Not only allows current to flow from the anode to the cathode but also in the reverse
direction.

• A diode with a very sharp breakdown voltage is called a Zener diode

• Designed to operate under the reverse breakdown condition.

• After breakdown maintain a fairly constant voltage over a wide range of current levels.

• Zener Effect: When the voltage across the terminals of a zener diode is reversed, and the
potential reaches the zener voltage (knee voltage VZ), the junction breaks down, and the
current flows in the reverse direction. This effect is known as the Zener Effect.
 How does a Zener Diode work in reverse bias?
• A Zener diode operates just like a normal diode when it is forward-biased.
• However, a small leakage current flows through the diode when connected in reverse-
biased mode.
• As the reverse voltage increases to the predetermined breakdown voltage (Vz), current
starts flowing through the diode.
• The current increases to a maximum, which is determined by the series resistor, after
which it stabilizes and remains constant over a wide range of applied voltage.
 There are two types of breakdowns for a Zener Diode:
• Avalanche Breakdown
• Zener Breakdown
 Zener breakdown
• Heavy Doping: Zener diodes are heavily doped on both the p-side and n-side. This results in a narrow
depletion region.

• High Reverse Voltage: When a high reverse voltage is applied, it creates a strong electric field across
this narrow depletion region.

• Tunneling Effect: The strong electric field causes electrons from the valence band of the p-side to
tunnel through the energy barrier to the conduction band of the n-side.

• This quantum mechanical tunneling generates a large number of free carriers, resulting in a sharp
increase in current.
 Avalanche breakdown
• The avalanche breakdown occurs when a high reverse voltage is applied across the diode.
• As we increase the applied reverse voltage, the electric field across the junction
increases.
• This electric field exerts a force on the electrons at the junction and frees them from
covalent bonds.
• These free electrons start moving with high velocity across the junction and collide with
the other atoms, thus creating more free electrons.
• This results in a rapid increase in net current.
• Both these breakdowns (Avalanche, Zener) occur in Zener diodes.
 Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode

• The first quadrant in the graph

represents the forward
characteristics of a Zener diode.
• From the graph, we understand that
it is almost identical to the forward
characteristics of any other P-N
junction diode.
 Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode

• When a reverse voltage is applied to a Zener

voltage, a small reverse saturation current
flows across the diode. This current is due to
thermally generated minority carriers.
• As the reverse voltage increases, at a
certain value of reverse voltage, the reverse
current increases drastically and sharply.
• This is an indication that the breakdown has
occurred. We call this voltage breakdown
voltage or Zener voltage, and Vz denotes it.
 Parameters Zener breakdown Avalanche breakdown

Definition It occurs in the Zener diodes having Vz Avalanche breakdown occurs in p-n
between 5 to 8V or less than 5V. junction when the Vz is greater than
6V.
Depletion region Thin Thick

Electric connection The connection is not destroyed The connection destroyed

The breakdown doesn’t affect the voltage After the breakdown, the voltage
Voltage
tends to vary
Effect on junction The junction gets back to the normal The junction is destroyed
position after the voltage is removed permanently
Electrons and holes The production of electrons takes place The production of a pair of
electrons and holes takes place
 Zener Diode-Voltage Regulator
• A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that
provides a stable DC voltage independent of the
load current, temperature and AC line voltage
variations.
• The voltage across the Zener will remain steady
at its break down voltage VZ for all the values of
Zener current IZ as long as the current remains in
the break down region.
• Hence a regulated DC output voltage V0=VZ is
obtained across RL.
 Optoelectronic devices
• Optoelectronic devices are electric devices that can detect, generate, and interact with or control light.

• Optoelectronics is the study and application of light-emitting or light-detecting devices.

• Optoelectronic devices are special types of semiconductor devices that are able to convert light energy
to electrical energy or electrical energy to light energy

• Examples of optoelectronic devices

• Photodiode
• Solar Cells
• Light Emitting Diodes
• Optical Fiber
• Laser Diodes
• LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)
 Light Emitting Diodes: Convert electrical energy into light energy
• LED consists of a heavily doped p-n junction diode and is used in forward bias.
• P-side is rich in holes and the N-side is rich in electrons.
• When current is applied in forward bias, the electrons from the n-side of the diode move towards
the p-side which has holes.
• The combination of 1-electron and 1-hole results in the release of a photon (which is an effect
called electroluminescence) which is emitted in form of light that we see in LED.
• The intensity of light emitted by an LED is directly proportional to the magnitude of the current
because when more current is applied, more photons will be released and the intensity of light
will be more.

 Photodiode:
• It is a device that converts light energy into electric
energy.
• It consists of an active P-N junction and generates a
current or voltage when light falls on the junction.
• It is used in reverse bias conditions.
• To increase the electric current under reverse bias
condition, we need to generate more minority carriers.
 Solar Cells: A solar cell is an electrical device that converts light
energy to electrical energy.
• Photons transfer energy to electrons in the semiconductor
material, exciting them to a higher energy state and freeing them
from their atomic bonds.

 Laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) diodes:

• Devices that convert electrical energy into light energy.
• Produces coherent light through the process of electroluminescence.
• They are very similar in form and operation to LEDs.
Coherent Light: The light emitted is in-phase (One direction) and monochromatic.

Directional Beam: Highly focused, low-divergence beam compared to LEDs.

Efficiency: High optical efficiency in converting electrical energy to light.

 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
• Three layers of semiconductor device
• Arranged either in an n–p–n sequence or in a p–n–p
• Has two p–n junctions connected back-to-back

• Emitter is heavily doped; base is lightly doped and collector is less heavily doped than the
emitter

• The basic principle of transistor operation is that a small current in the base region can control
a much larger current flow through the transistor, i.e., from the emitter to the collector.

• Used as current amplification or a voltage amplification device.

• Transistor is a current controlled device.

 Types of Bipolar Junction Transistor
 There are two types of bipolar junction transistors:
• PNP bipolar junction transistor
• NPN bipolar junction transistor

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 Working of NPN Transistor
• The base–emitter junction, EB is forward biased and the collector–base CB junction is
reverse biased, and VCB is higher than VBE.

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• The base–emitter junction is FB and the collector–base junction is RB
• VCB is higher than VBE.
• Reverse bias at collector junction is quite high and exerts more attractive forces on charge
carries.
• The base section is made very thin and is lightly doped so that majority of the charge
carriers (electrons in n–p–n transistor) can move from the emitter to the collector.
• Most charge carriers flow from emitter to collector and only a small percentage flow
through the base material.
• Variation of base–emitter voltage changes base, emitter, and collector currents.
 Configuration of Bipolar Junction Transistor

 Transistor is a three-terminal device, there are three ways to connect it within an electric

circuit while one terminal is the same for both output and input.

 Every method of connection responds differently to the input signals

• Common Emitter Configuration – has both voltage and current gain

• Common Collector Configuration – has no voltage gain but has a current gain

• Common Base Configuration – has no current gain but has a voltage gain

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 Characteristics of different transistor configurations

Characteristics Common Base Common Emitter Common Collector

Power Gain low Very high medium

Current gain low medium high
Voltage gain High Medium low
Phase angle 0 180 0

Output impedance Very high high low

Input Impedance Low medium high

 Characteristics of Transistor

• Input Characteristics: The curve describes the changes in the values of input current with

respect to the values of input voltage, keeping the output voltage constant.

• Output Characteristics: The curve is obtained by plotting the output current against the

output voltage, keeping the input current constant.

• Current Transfer Characteristics: This characteristic curve describes the variation of output

current in accordance with the input current, keeping the output voltage constant.
 Common Base (CB) Configuration of Transistor
• In CB Configuration, the base terminal of the transistor will be commonly connected between the
output and the input terminals.

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 Input Characteristics
• The variation of emitter current(IE) with Base-Emitter voltage(VBE), keeping Collector Base
voltage(VCB) constant.

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 Output Characteristics

 The variation of collector current(IC) with Collector-Base voltage(VCB), keeping the emitter
current(IE) constant.

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 Current Transfer Characteristics
• The variation of collector current (IC) with the emitter current (IE), keeping Collector Base voltage
(VCB) constant.
• The resulting current gain has a value of less than 1.

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 Common Emitter (CE) Configuration of Transistor

Input Characteristics The variation of emitter current(IB) with Base-Emitter voltage (VBE),
keeping Collector Emitter voltage(VCE) constant.
 Output Characteristics
The variation of collector current(IC) with Collector-Emitter voltage(VCE), keeping the base
current(IB) constant.

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 Current Transfer Characteristics

• The variation of output collector current(IC) with the input base current(IB), keeping Collector-
Emitter voltage(VCE) constant.
• The resulting current gain has a value greater than 1.

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 Common Collector (CC) Configuration of Transistor

• In CC Configuration, the Collector terminal of the transistor will be commonly connected

between the output and the input terminals.

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 Input Characteristics

The variation of Base current(IB) with Collector-Base voltage(VCB), keeping Collector Emitter
voltage(VCE) constant.

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 Output Characteristics

 The variation of emitter current (IE) with Collector-Emitter voltage (VCE), keeping the base
current (IB) constant.

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 Current Transfer Characteristics

 The variation of Emitter current(IE) with the base current(IB), keeping Collector-Emitter
voltage(VCE) constant.

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BJT Regions of Operation

• When the BJT is operating in the cutoff region,

then it could be used like an open switch.

• If it is operating in the saturation region, the

BJT could be used as a closed switch.

• The BJT can also be used as an amplifier if you

properly bias it to operate in the active or
linear region.
 Transistor As an Amplifier
 Amplifier: An amplifier is an electronic device that increases strength of the weak signal (increases
the power of a signal).
• Use of an amplifier to boost the amplitude of an electrical signal without changing its other
properties, such as frequency or waveform shape.
 Amplification: Is the process of increasing the power, or voltage, or current of a signal.

 Transistors: Used in most amplifiers to increase signal strength.

Operating Regions of Transistors

Input Junction Output Junction Region Application

F.B R.B Active Region Amplifier
F.B F.B Saturation ON Switch
R.B R.B Cutoff Region OFF Switch
R.B F.B Inverted region Inverted
 Transistor as Switch
• A BJT can be used as an amplifier and also as a switch

• A switch either closes a circuit or opens a circuit.

• There are two states for a switch, i.e., either there is no current flow (cut off) or the switch
is closed, i.e., current flows through it with the minimum of resistance offered.

• The switching circuit is similar to an amplifier circuit, except that a pulse waveform input,
instead of a bias voltage and ac signal source, is applied to the transistor base.

• These two conditions can be created by applying a pulse wave input to the base of the BJT.

• VBB, VCC supplies the necessary power for the transistor to operate in different regions
(cutoff, active, or saturation).
 Condition: I

• When the input voltage, Vi is at zero level, the base current (Ib) is zero and there is no collector
current, i.e., IC = 0

• The transistor is cut off and works like an open switch.

• When the base-emitter voltage is at zero level, the transistor is not

working, and hence, IC = 0. Therefore,

VCC = VCE + IC . R C

VCE = VCC – ICR2

VCE = VCC When Vi=0, Open switch, Vout=1

 Condition: II
• When Vi is at positive level, base current, Ib will flow.
• If the BJT is to be used as a switching device, the level of Ib is made high enough so that the
transistor is saturated.
• At saturated state the level of IC will be such that IC.R2 will be equal to VCC for which VCE = 0.
The transistor will operate as a closed switch between the collector and emitter.

VCE = VCC – ICR2

=0

When Vi= +ve level, closed switch, Vout=0

 Applications of BJT

• Used as a switch,

• As an amplifier,

• As a filter, and

• As an oscillator.

• BJT is used as a detector or also known as a demodulator.

• BJT finds application in clipping circuits to shape the waves.

• Logic circuits and switching circuits use BJT.