3CH2208

ADVANCED PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN - II

L T P C
3 - 2 4

Dr R K Mewada
Associate Professor, Chemical Engineering Dept.,
Institute of Technology

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 1

FLUID TRANSPORT EQUIPMENT
Although liquids particularly can be transported by operators carrying buckets,
the usual mode of transport of fluids is through pipelines with pumps, blowers,
compressors, or ejectors.

Those categories of equipment will be considered in this chapter. A few

statements will be made at the start about piping, fittings, and valves, although
for the most part this is information best gleaned from manufacturers' catalogs.

Special problems such as mechanical flexibility of piping at elevated

temperatures are beyond the scope here, and special problems associated
with sizing of piping for thermosyphon reboilers and the suction side of pumps
for handling volatile liquids are deferred to elsewhere in this book.

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 2

PIPING

Standard pipe is made in a discrete number of sizes that are designated by

nominal diameters in inches, as "inches IPS (iron pipe size)." Table A5 lists
some of these sizes with dimensions in inches.

Depending on the sue, up to 14 different wall thicknesses are made with the
same outside diameter. They are identified by schedule numbers, of which the
most common is Schedule 40.

Approximately,

Schedule number = 1000 P/S,

where
P = internal pressure, psig
S = allowable working stress in psi.

Tubing for heat exchangers, refrigeration, and general service is made with
outside diameters measured in increments of 1/16 or 1/8 in. Standard size pipe
is made of various metals, ceramics, glass, and plastics.
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 3
Dimensional standards, materials of construction, and pressure ratings of piping
for chemical plants and petroleum refineries are covered by ANSI Piping Code
B31.3 which is published by the

ASME, latest issue 1980. Many details also are given in such sources as
Crocker and King, Piping Handbook (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1967), Perry's
Chemical Engineers Handbook (1984), and Marks Standard Handbook for
Mechanical Engineers (1987).

In sizes 2in. and less screwed fittings may be used. Larger joints commonly are
welded. Connections to equipment and in lines whenever need for disassembly
is anticipated utilize flanges.

Steel flanges, flanged fittings, and valves are made in pressure ratings of 150,
300, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500 psig.

Valves also are made in 125 and 250psig cast iron. Pressure and temperature
ratings of this equipment in various materials of construction are specified in the
piping code, and are shown in Chem. Eng. Handbook 1984, pp. 6.75-6.78.

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 4

VALVES

Control of flow in lines and provision for isolation of equipment when needed are
accomplished with valves.

The basic types are relatively few, some of which are illustrated in Figure 7.1. In
gate valves the flow is straight through and is regulated by raising or lowering
the gate.

The majority of valves in the plant are of this type. In the wide open position they
cause little pressure drop. In globe valves the flow changes direction and results
in appreciable friction even in the wide open position. This kind of valve is
essential when tight shutoff is needed, particularly of gas flow.

MultiControl valves have orifices that can be adjusted to regulate the flow of
fluids through them. Four features important to their use are capacity,
characteristic, rangeability and recovery.

Capacity is represented by a coefficient Cd = Cv/ d2,

where d is the diameter of the valve and C, is the orifice coefficient in equations
such as the following
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 5
where pi is pressure in psi, pw is specific gravity relative to water, pa is specific
gravity relative to air, and T is temperature "R.

Values of Cd of commercial valves range from 12 for double-seated globe

valves to 32 for open butterflies, and vary somewhat from manufacturer to
manufacturer.

Chalfin (1980) has a list. Characteristic is the relation between the valve
opening and the flow rate. Figure 7.l(h) represents the three most common
forms.

The shapes of plugs and ports can be designed to obtain any desired
mathematical relation between the pressure on the diaphragm, the travel of the
valve stem, and the rate of flow through the port.

Linear behavior is represented mathematically by Q = kx and equal percentage

by Q = k1 exp(k2,x), where x is the valve opening.

Quick-opening is a characteristic of a bevel-seated or flat disk type of plug; over

a limited range of 10-25% of the maximum stem travel is approximately linear.

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 6

Over a threefold load change, the performances of linear and equal percentage
valves are almost identical.

When the pressure drop across the valve is less than 25% of the system drop,
the equal percentage type is preferred.

In fact, a majority of characterized valves currently are equal percentage.

Rangeability is the ratio of maximum to minimum flows over which the valve can
give good control.

This concept is difficult to quantify and is not used much for valve selection. A
valve generally can be designed properly for a suitably wide flow range.

Recovery is a measure of the degree of pressure recovery at the valve outlet

from the low pressure at the vena contracta.

When flashing occurs at the vena contracta and the pressure recovery is high,
the bubbles co!lapse with resulting cavitation and noise.

The more streamlined the valve, the more complete the pressure recovery; thus,
from this point of view streamlining seems to be an undesirable quality.
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 7
A table of recovery factors of a number of valve types is given by Chalfin (1980);
such data usually are provided by manufacturers.

These characteristics and other properties of 15 kinds of valves are described

by Chalfin (1980).

Pressure drop. Good control requires a substantial pressure drop through the
valve. For pumped systems, the drop through the valve should be at least 1/3 of
the pressure drop in the system, with a minimum of 15 psi. When the expected
variation in flow is small, this rule can be relaxed.

In long liquid transportation lines, for instance, a fully open control valve may
absorb less than 1% of the system pressure drop.

In systems with centrifugal pumps, the variation of head with capacity must be
taken into account when sizing the valve.

Example 7.2, for instance, illustrates how the valve drop may vary with flow in
such a system.

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 8

Types of valves.

Most flow control valves are operated with adjustable air pressure on a
diaphragm, as in Figure 7.l(d), since this arrangement is more rapid, more
sensitive and cheaper than electrical motor control.

Double-ported valve (d) gives better control at large flow rates; the pressures on
the upper and lower plugs are balanced so that less force is needed to move the
stem.

The single port (e) is less expensive but gives a tighter shutoff and is generally
satisfactory for noncritical service.

The reverse acting valve (f) closes on air failure and is desirable for reasons of
safety in some circumstances.

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 9

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 10
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 11
 12
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes
PUMP System Design

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 13

PUMP SELECTION

When selecting pumps for any service, it is necessary to know the

liquid to be handled, the total dynamic head, the suction and
discharge heads, and, in most cases, the temperature, viscosity,
vapor pressure, and specific gravity. In the chemical industry, the
task of pump selection is frequently further complicated by the
presence of solids in the liquid and liquid corrosion characteristics
requiring special materials of construction. Solids may accelerate
erosion and corrosion, have a tendency to agglomerate, or require
delicate handling to prevent undesirable degradation.

14
Types of pumps

Pumps can be classified into two general types:

1. Dynamic pumps, such as centrifugal pumps.
2. Positive displacement pumps, such as reciprocating and diaphragm
pumps.

The single-stage, horizontal, overhung, centrifugal pump is by far the most

commonly used type in the chemical process industry. Other types are used
where a high head or other special process considerations are specified.

Because of the wide variety of pump types and the number of factors which
determine the selection of any one type for a specific installation, the
designer must first eliminate all but those types of reasonable possibility.
Since range of operation is always an important consideration, Fig. 10-26
should be of assistance. The boundaries shown for each pump type are at
best approximate, as unusual applications for which the best selection
contradicts the chart will arise. In most cases, however, Fig. 10-26 will prove
useful in limiting
consideration to two or three types of pumps.
15
16
 Pump selection is made on the flow rate and head required, together with
other process considerations, such as corrosion or the presence of solids in
the fluid.

This figure is
based on one
published by
Doolin
(1977).

17
18
Pump Materials of Construction

In the chemical industry, the selection of pump materials of

construction is dictated by considerations of corrosion, erosion,
personnel safety, and liquid contamination. The experience of
pump manufacturers is often valuable in selecting materials. See
section on materials.

19
Presence of Solids:

When a pump is required to pump a liquid containing suspended solids, there

are unique requirements which must be considered. Adequate clear-liquid
hydraulic performance and the use of carefully selected materials of construction
may not be all that is required for satisfactory pump selection. Dimensions of all
internal passages are critical. Pockets and dead spots, areas where solids can
accumulate, must be avoided. Close internal clearances are undesirable
because of abrasion. Flushing connections for continuous or intermittent use
should be provided.

For installations in which suspended solids must be handled with a minimum of

solids breakage or degradation, such as pumps feeding filter presses, special
attention is required; either a low-shear positivedisplacement pump or a
recessed-impeller centrifugal pump may be called for.

Ease of maintenance is of increasing importance in today’s economy. Chemical

pump installations that require annual maintenance costing 2 or 3 times the
original investment are not uncommon. In most cases this expense is the result
of improper selection.
20
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

The centrifugal pump is the type most widely used in the chemical industry
for transferring liquids of all types—raw materials, materials in manufacture,
and finished products—as well as for general services of water supply, boiler
feed, condenser circulation, condensate return, etc.

These pumps are available through a vast range of sizes, in capacities from
0.5 m3/h to 2 × 104 m3/h (2 gal/min to 105 gal/min), and for discharge heads
(pressures) from a few meters to approximately 48 MPa (7000 lbf/in2). The
size and type best suited to a particular application can be determined only
by an engineering study of the problem.

21
22
 Casings

Volute casings

23
Action of a Centrifugal Pump

24
25
26
Power requirements for pumping liquids:

To transport a liquid from one vessel to another through a pipeline,

energy has to be supplied to:
1. overcome the friction losses in the pipes;
2. overcome the miscellaneous losses in the pipe fittings (e.g. bends),
valves, instruments etc.;
3. overcome the losses in process equipment (e.g. heat exchangers);
4. overcome any difference in elevation from end to end of the pipe;
5. overcome any difference in pressure between the vessels at each
end of the pipeline.

27
 The total energy required can be calculated from the
equation:

where
W = work done, J/kg,
z = difference in elevations (z1 - z2), m,
 P = difference in system pressures (P1 - P2), N/m2,
 Pf = pressure drop due to friction, including miscellaneous losses,
and equipment losses, (see section 5.4.2), N/m2,
 = liquid density, kg/m3,
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2.
If W is negative a pump is required; if it is positive a turbine could be
installed to extract energy from the system.

28
The head required from the pump = Pf/g - P/g -  z

The power is given by:

Power =W m/, for a pump
and
Power = W m/  , for a turbine

where m = mass flow-rate, kg/s,

 = power out/power in.

29
 Total Head considerations:

The selection of the pump cannot be separated from the design of

the complete piping system.

Total head required = Dynamic head + Static head

Where,
Dynamic head = Head due to friction losses in the piping, fittings,
valves and process equipment, and
Static head = Head due to differences in elevation.

30
Viscosity:
In flowing liquids the existence of internal friction or the internal
resistance to relative motion of the fluid particles must be considered.
This resistance is called viscosity. The viscosity of liquids usually
decreases with rising temperature. Viscous liquids tend to increase the
power required by a pump, to reduce pump efficiency, head, and
capacity, and to increase friction in pipe lines.

Friction Head This is the pressure required to overcome the resistance

to flow in pipe and fittings.

31
The pressure drop required across a control valve will be a function of the valve
design. Sufficient pressure drop must be allowed for when sizing the pump to
ensure that the control valve operates satisfactorily over the full range of flow
required. If possible, the control valve and pump should be sized together, as a
unit, to ensure that the optimum size is selected for both. As a rough guide, if
the characteristics are not specified, the control valve pressure drop should be
taken as at least 30 per cent of the total dynamic pressure drop through the
system, with a minimum value of 50 kPa (7 psi). The valve should be sized for
a maximum flow rate 30 per cent above the normal stream flow-rate.

Some of the pressure drop across the valve will be recovered downstream, the
amount depending on the type of valve used.

32
Pressure drop due to friction in pipelines

The pressure drop in a pipe, due to friction, is a function of the fluid flow-rate,
fluid density and viscosity, pipe diameter, pipe surface roughness and the length
of the pipe.

It can be calculated using the following equation:

where Pf = Pressure drop, N/m2,

f = friction factor,
L = pipe length, m,
di = pipe inside diameter, m,
 = fluid density, kg/m3,
u = fluid velocity, m/s.

33
The friction factor used in above equation is related to the shear stress at
the pipe wall, R, by the equation,

f = R/u2.

34
35
There will also be a pressure drop due to the valves used to isolate
equipment and control the fluid flow. The pressure drop due to these
miscellaneous losses can be estimated using either of two methods:

1. As the number of velocity heads, K, lost at each fitting or valve. A velocity

head is u2/2g, metres of the fluid, equivalent to (u2/2), N/m2. The total
number of velocity heads lost due to all the fittings and valves is added to
the pressure drop due to pipe friction.

2. As a length of pipe that would cause the same pressure loss as the fitting
or valve. As this will be a function of the pipe diameter, it is expressed as
the number of equivalent pipe diameters. The length of pipe to add to the
actual pipe length is found by multiplying the total number of equivalent
pipe diameters by the diameter of the pipe being used.

36
37
Example
A pipeline connecting two tanks contains four standard elbows, a plug valve that
is fully open and a gate valve that is half open. The line is commercial steel
pipe, 25 mm internal diameter, length 120 m. The properties of the fluid are:
viscosity 0.99 mNM2 s, density 998 kg/m3. Calculate the total pressure drop
due to friction when the flow rate is 3500 kg/h.

Solution

38
39
40
41
Pump shaft power
The power required for pumping an incompressible fluid is given by:

Power = P*Qp/

where
P = pressure differential across the pump, N/m2,
Qp = flow rate, m3/s,
 = pump efficiency, per cent.

42
The efficiency will depend on the type of pump used and the operating
conditions. For preliminary design calculations, the efficiency of centrifugal
pumps can be determined using Figure. 5.9.

43
Example 5.2
A tanker carrying toluene is unloaded, using the ship’s pumps, to an on-shore
storage tank. The pipeline is 225 mm internal diameter and 900 m long.
Miscellaneous losses due to fittings, valves, etc., amount to 600 equivalent pipe
diameters. The maximum liquid level in the storage tank is 30 m above the
lowest level in the ship’s tanks. The ship’s tanks are nitrogen blanketed and
maintained at a pressure of 1.05 bar. The storage tank has a floating roof,
which exerts a pressure of 1.1 bar on the liquid. The ship must unload 1000
tonne within 5 hours to avoid demurrage charges. Estimate the power required
by the pump. Take the pump efficiency as 70 per cent. Physical properties of
toluene: density 874 kg/m3, viscosity 0.62 mNs/m2 .

44
Solution

45
46
Work Performed in Pumping

When arriving at the performance of a pump, it is customary to calculate its

power output, which is the product of
(1) the total dynamic head and
(2) the mass of liquid pumped in a given time.

In SI units power is expressed in kilowatts; horsepower is the conventional unit

used in the United States.

In SI units,
kW = HQρ/3.670 × 105 (10-49)

where kW is the pump power output, kW;

H = total head, N⋅m/kg (column of liquid);
Q = capacity, m3/h; and ρ = liquid density, kg/m3.

47
Suction Limitations of a Pump

Whenever the pressure in a liquid drops below the vapor pressure

corresponding to its temperature, the liquid will vaporize. When this happens
within an operating pump, the vapor bubbles will be carried along to a point of
higher pressure, where they suddenly collapse. This phenomenon is known as
cavitation.

Cavitation in a pump should be avoided, as it is accompanied by metal

removal, vibration, reduced flow, loss in efficiency, and noise. When the
absolute suction pressure is low, cavitation may occur in the pump inlet and
damage result in the pump suction and on the impeller vanes near the inlet
edges. To avoid this phenomenon, it is necessary to maintain a required net
positive suction head (NPSH)R, which is the equivalent total head of liquid at
the pump centerline less the vapor pressure p.

48
Each pump manufacturer publishes curves relating (NPSH)R to capacity
and speed for each pump.

When a pump installation is being designed, the available net positive

suction head (NPSH)A must be equal to or greater than the (NPSH)R for
the desired capacity. The (NPSH)A can be calculated as follows:

(NPSH)A = hss − hfs − p …(10-54)

If (NPSH)A is to be checked on an existing installation, it can be determined

as follows:

(NPSH)A = atm + hgs − p + hvs

49
Practically, the NPSH required for operation without cavitation
and vibration in the pump is somewhat greater than the
theoretical. The actual (NPSH)R depends on the
characteristics of the liquid, the total head, the pump speed, the
capacity, and impeller design. Any suction condition which
reduces (NPSH)A below that required to prevent cavitation at
the desired capacity will produce an unsatisfactory installation
and can lead to mechanical difficulty.

50
NPSH Requirements for Other Liquids

NPSH values depend on the fluid being pumped. Since water is

considered a standard fluid for pumping, various correction methods
have been developed to evaluate NPSH when pumping other fluids. The
most recent of these corrective methods has been developed by
Hydraulic Institute and is shown in Fig. 10-25.
The chart shown in Fig. 10-25 is for pure liquids. Extrapolation of data
beyond the ranges indicated in the graph may not produce accurate
results. Figure 10-25 shows the variation of vapor pressure and NPSH
reductions for various hydrocarbons and hot water as a function of
temperature.

Certain rules apply while using this chart. When using the chart for hot
water, if the NPSH reduction is greater than one-half of the NPSH required
for cold water, deduct one-half of cold water NPSH to obtain the corrected
NPSH required. On the other hand, if the value read on the chart is less
than one-half of cold water NPSH, deduct this chart value from the cold
water NPSH to obtain the corrected NPSH.

51
52
Example 1: NPSH Calculation Suppose a selected pump requires a
minimum NPSH of 16 ft (4.9 m) when pumping cold water; What will be the
NPSH limitation to pump propane at 55°F (12.8°C) with a vapor pressure of
100 psi? Using the chart in Fig. 10-25, NPSH reduction for propane gives
9.5 ft (2.9 m). This is greater than one-half of cold water NPSH of 16 ft (4.9
m). The corrected NPSH is therefore 8 ft (2.2 m) or one-half of cold water
NPSH.

53
Example 5.4
Liquid chlorine is unloaded from rail tankers into a storage vessel. To provide the
necessary NPSH, the transfer pump is placed in a pit below ground level. Given
the following information, calculate the NPSH available at the inlet to the pump, at
a maximum flow-rate of 16,000 kg/h.

The total length of the pipeline from the rail tanker outlet to the pump inlet is 50 m.
The vertical distance from the tank outlet to the pump inlet is 10 m. Commercial
steel piping, 50 mm internal diameter, is used. Miscellaneous friction losses due to
the tanker outlet constriction and the pipe fittings in the inlet piping, are equivalent
to 1000 equivalent pipe diameters. The vapour pressure of chlorine at the
maximum temperature reached at the pump is 685 kN/m2 and its density and
viscosity, 1286 kg/m3 and 0.364 mNs/m2. The pressure in the tanker is 7 bar(a).

54
Solution

Friction losses

55
Centrifugal-Pump Characteristics curves:

The performance of a centrifugal pump is characterized by plotting the

head developed against the flow-rate.

The pump efficiency can be shown on the same curve.

A typical plot is shown in Figure.

The head developed by the pump falls as the flow-rate is increased.

The efficiency rises to a maximum and then falls.

For a given type and design of pump, the performance will depend on
the impeller diameter, the pump speed, and the number of stages.

Pump manufacturers publish families of operating curves for the

range of pumps they sell. These can be used to select the best pump
for a given duty.

56
Centrifugal-Pump Characteristics curves with constant speed

57
Figure 10-28 shows a typical characteristic curve of a centrifugal pump. It is
important to note that at any fixed speed the pump will operate along this
curve and at no other points.

For instance, on the curve shown, at 45.5 m3/h (200 gal/min) the pump will
generate 26.5-m (87-ft) head. If the head is increased to 30.48 m (100 ft),
27.25 m3/h (120 gal/min) will be delivered.

It is not possible to reduce the capacity to 27.25 m3/h (120 gal/min) at 26.5-m
(87-ft) head unless the discharge is throttled so that 30.48 m (100 ft) is
actually generated within the pump.

On pumps with variable-speed drivers such as steam turbines, it is possible to

change the characteristic curve, as shown by Fig. 10-29.

58
Centrifugal-Pump Characteristics curves with variable speed

59
As shown in Eq. (10-48), the head depends upon the velocity of the fluid,
which in turn depends upon the capability of the impeller to transfer energy to
the fluid. This is a function of the fluid viscosity and the impeller design. It is
important to remember that the head produced will be the same for any liquid
of the same viscosity. The pressure rise, however, will vary in proportion to
the specific gravity.

60
For quick pump selection, manufacturers often give the most essential
performance details for a whole range of pump sizes.

Figure 10-30 shows typical performance data for a range of process pumps
based on suction and discharge pipes and impeller diameters. The
performance data consists of pump flow rate and head. Once a pump meets
a required specification, then a more detailed performance data for the
particular pump can be easily found based on the curve reference number.

Figure 10-31 shows a more detailed pump performance curve that includes,
in addition to pump head and flow, the break horsepower required, NPSH
required, number of vanes, and pump efficiency for a range of impeller
diameters.

61
62
63
 System curve (operating line):

There are two components to the pressure head that has to be

supplied by the pump in a piping system:

1. The static pressure, to overcome the differences in head (height)

and pressure.
2. The dynamic loss due to friction in the pipe, the miscellaneous
losses, and the pressure loss through equipment.

The system curve, or operating line, is a plot of the total pressure

head versus the liquid flow-rate. The operating point of a centrifugal
pump can be found by plotting the system curve on the pump’s
characteristic curve. The operating point should be as close as is
practical to the point of maximum pump efficiency, allowing for the
range of flow-rate over which the pump may be required to operate.

64
 System curve (operating line) (Cont.):

Most centrifugal pumps are controlled by throttling the flow with a

valve on the pump discharge. This varies the dynamic pressure loss,
and so the position of the operating point on the pump characteristic
curve.

Throttling the flow results in an energy loss, which is acceptable in

most applications.

However, when the flow-rates are large, the use of variable speed
control on the pump drive should be considered to conserve energy.

65
66
System Curves In addition to the pump design, the operational
performance of a pump depends upon factors such as the downstream load
characteristics, pipe friction, and valve performance.

Typically, head and flow follow the following relationship:

(10-56)

where the subscript 1 refers to the design condition and 2 to the actual
conditions. The above equation indicates that head will change as a
square of the water flow rate.

67
Figure 10-32 shows the schematic of a pump, moving a fluid from tank A to
tank B, both of which are at the same level. The only force that the pump
has to overcome in this case is the pipe function, variation of which with
fluid flow rate is also shown in the figure.

On the other for the use shown in Figure 10-33, the pump in addition to
pipe friction should overcome head due to difference in elevation between
tanks A and B. In this case, elevation head is constant, whereas the head
required to overcome friction depends on the flow rate. Figure 10-34 shows
the pump performance requirement of a valve opening and closing.

68
69
70
Example 5.3
A process liquid is pumped from a storage tank to a distillation column,
using a centrifugal pump. The pipeline is 80 mm internal diameter
commercial steel pipe, 100 m long. Miscellaneous losses are equivalent
to 600 pipe diameters. The storage tank operates at atmospheric
pressure and the column at 1.7 bara. The lowest liquid level in the tank
will be 1.5 m above the pump inlet, and the feed point to the column is 3
m above the pump inlet. Plot the system curve on the pump
characteristic given in Figure A and determine the operating point and
pump efficiency. Properties of the fluid: density 900 kg/m3, viscosity 1.36
mNs/m2.

71
Solution
Static head

72
If detailed manufacturer-specified performance curves are not available for a
different size of the pump or operating condition, a best estimate of the off-
design performance of pumps can be obtained through similarity relationship or
the affinity laws. These are:

1. Capacity (Q) is proportional to impeller rotational speed (N).

2. Head (h) varies as square of the impeller rotational speed.
3. Break horsepower (BHP) varies as the cube of the impeller rotational speed.

These equations can be expressed mathematically and appear in Table 10-7.

74
75
 Pump Selection
One of the parameters that is extremely useful in selecting a pump for
a particular application is specific speed Ns. Specific speed of a
pump can be evaluated based on its design speed, flow, and head.

In the dimensionless form, specific speed is given by:

where N = revolutions per second,
Q = flow, m3/s,
h = head, m,
g = gravitational acceleration m/s2.

Pump manufacturers do not generally use the dimensionless specific speed,

but define it by the equation:
where Ns’ =revolutions per minute (rpm),
Q = flow, US gal/min,
h = head, ft.
Conversion of SI to FPS unit by multiplying by 1.73*104

76
Specific speed is a parameter that defines the speed at which
impellers of geometrically similar design have to be run to
discharge one gallon per minute against a one-foot head. In
general, pumps with a low specific speed have a low capacity and
high specific speed, high capacity. Specific speeds of different
types of pumps are shown in Table 10-8 for comparison.

77
Another parameter that helps in evaluating the pump suction
limitations, such as cavitation, is suction specific speed.

Typically, for single-suction pumps, suction-specific speed above

11,000 is considered excellent. Below 7000 is poor and 7000–9000 is
of an average design. Similarly, for double-suction pumps, suction
specific speed above 14,000 is considered excellent, below 7000 is
poor, and 9000–11,000 is average.

78
Figure 10-35 shows the schematic of specific-speed variation for different
types of pumps. The figure clearly indicates that, as the specific speed
increases, the ratio of the impeller outer diameter D1 to inlet or eye diameter
D2 decreases, tending to become unity for pumps of axial-flow type.

79
Typically, axial flow pumps are of high flow and low head type and have a
high specific speed. On the other hand, purely radial pumps are of high
head and low flow rate capability and have a low specific speed.
Obviously, a pump with a moderate flow and head has an average specific
speed.

80
A typical pump selection chart such as shown in Fig. 10-36 calculates the
specific speed for a given flow, head, and speed requirements. Based on the
calculated specific speed, the optimal pump design is indicated.

81
Process Pumps

82
Sealing the Centrifugal Chemical Pump

83
Double-Suction Single-Stage Pumps

84
Close-Coupled Pumps

85
Canned-Motor Pumps

86
Vertical Pumps

87
Sump Pumps

88
Multistage Centrifugal Pumps

89
PROPELLER AND TURBINE PUMPS

Axial-Flow (Propeller) Pumps

90
Characteristic curve of an axial-flow pump:

91
92
Turbine Pumps

93
POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

94
Characteristic curves of a regenerative pump:

95
Reciprocating Pumps

96
Piston Pumps

Simplex Double-Acting Pumps

Duplex Double-Acting Pumps

97
Pneumatically Actuated Diaphragm
Pumps

Rotary Pumps

Gear Pumps

Screw Pumps

98
Fluid-Displacement Pumps

JET PUMPS

ELECTROMAGNETIC PUMPS

99
VIBRATION MONITORING

100
 PUMP DIAGNOSTICS

As the mechanical integrity of the pump system changes, the amplitude of

vibration levels change. In some cases, in order to identify the source of
vibration, pump speed may have to be varied, as these problems are
frequency- or resonance-dependent. Pump impeller imbalance and cavitation
are related to this category. Table 10-11 classifies different types of pump-
related problems, their possible causes and corrective actions.

Typical pump-related problems are classified under

1. Cavitation-type problems
2. Capacity-type problems
3. Motor overload problems

It is advisable in most of these cases to use accelerometers. Displacement

probes will not give the high-frequency signals and velocity probes because
their mechanical design is very directional and prone to deterioration.

101
PUMP SPECIFICATIONS

Pump specifications depend upon numerous factors but mostly on

application. Typically, the following factors should be considered while
preparing a specification.

1. Application, scope and type

2. Service conditions
3. Operating conditions
4. Consternation-application-specific details and special considerations
• Casing connection
• Impeller details
• Shaft
• Shifting box details—lubrications, sealing, etc.
• Bearing frame and bearings
• Base plate and couplings
• Materials
• Special operating conditions and miscellaneous items

Table 10-12 is based on the API and ASME codes.

102
103
104
105
COMPRESSION OF GASES

106
COMPRESSION OF GASES

Theory of Compression In any continuous compression process the

relation of absolute pressure p to volume V is expressed by the formula
pVn = C = constant (10-59)

The plot of pressure versus volume for each value of exponent n is known
as the polytropic curve. Since the work W performed in proceeding from
p1 to p2 along any polytropic curve (Fig. 10-65) is

107
108
109
110
111
PUMP THEORY

Pumps are of two main classes: centrifugal and the others. These others
mostly have positive displacement action in which the discharge rate is largely
independent of the pressure against which they work.

Centrifugal pumps have rotating elements that impart high velocity initially and
high pressure head ultimately to the liquid. Elements of their theory will be
discussed here.

A glossary of pump terms and terms relating primarily to centrifugal pumps are
defined in the Glossary at the end of this chapter. The chief variables involved
in pump theory are listed here with typical units:

D = diameter of impeller (ft or m),

H = output head (ft or m),
n = rotational speed (1/sec),
k = output power (HP or kW),
Q = volumetric discharge rate (cfs or m3/sec),
 = viscosity (lb/ft sec or N sec/m2),
 = density (Ib/cuft or kg/m3),
E = surface roughness (ft or m).
112
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 113
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 114
BASIC RELATIONS

A dimensional analysis with these variables reveals that the functional relations of
Eqs. (7.1) and (7.2) must exist:

The group D2n/p is the Reynolds number and /D is the roughness ratio. Three
new groups also have arisen which are named

capacity coefficient, CQ = Q/nD3, (7.3)

head coefficient, CH = gH/n2D2, (7.4)
power coefficient, CP= P/pn3D5. (7.5)

The hydraulic efficiency is expressed by these coefficients as

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 115

Although this equation states that the efficiency is independent of the diameter,
in practice this is not quite true. An empirical relation is due to Moody [AXE
Trans. 89, 628 (1926)l:

Geometrically similar pumps are those that have all the dimensionless
groups numerically the same. In such cases, two different sets of operations
are related as follows:

The performances of geometrically similar pumps also can be represented in

terms of the coefficients CQ, CH , CP and efficency.

For instance, the data of the pump of Figure 7.2(a) are transformed into the
plots of Figure 7.2(b). An application of such generalized curves is made in
Example 7.1.

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 116

Another dimensionless parameter that is independent of diameter is obtained by
eliminating D between CQ, and CH, with the result,

This concept is called the specific speed. It is commonly used in the mixed
units

For double suction pumps, Q is one half the pump output.

The net head at the suction of the pump impeller must exceed a certain value
in order to prevent formation of vapor and resulting cavitation of the metal. This
minimum head is called the net positive suction head and is evaluated as

NPSH = (pressure head at the source) + (static suction head) - (friction head in
the suction line) - (vapor pressure of the liquid). (7.13)

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 117

For example, at 3500 rpm, 1000rpm, and S = 7900, the required NPSH is 34 ft.

For common fluids other than water, the required NPSH usually is lower than for
cold water; some data are shown in Figure 7.16.

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 118

Usually each manufacturer supplies this value for his equipment. (Some data are
in Figure 7.7.) A suction specific speed is defined as

Standards for upper limits of specific speeds have been established, like those
shown in Figure 7.6 for four kinds of pumps.

When these values are exceeded, cavitation and resultant damage to the pump
may occur.

Characteristic curves corresponding to widely different values of N, are shown in

Figure 7.3 for several kinds of pumps handling clear water.

The concept of specific speed is utilized in Example 7.3. Further data are in
Figure 7.6.

Recommendations also are made by the Hydraulic Institute of suction specific

speeds for multistage boiler feed pumps, with S = 7900 for single suction and S
= 6660 for double suction. Thus the required NPSH can be found by
rearrangement of Eq. (7.14) as

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 119

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 120
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 121
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 122
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 123
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 124
PUMPING SYSTEMS

The relation between the flow rate and the head developed by a centrifugal pump
is a result of its mechanical design. Typical curves are shown in Figure 7.7. When
a pump is connected to a piping system, its head must match the head loss in the
piping system at the prevailing flow rate.

The plot of the flow rate against the head loss in a line is called the system curve.
The head loss is given by the mechanical energy balance,

where Hv, is the head loss of a control valve in the line.

The operating point may be found as the intersection of plots of the pump and
system heads as functions of the flow rate. Or an equation may be fitted to the
pump characteristic and then solved simultaneously with Eq. (7.16). Figure 7.17
has such plots, and Example 7.2 employs the algebraic method.

In the normal situation, the flow rate is the specified quantity. With a particular
pump curve, the head loss of the system may need to be adjusted with a control
valve in the line to make the system and pump heads the same.
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 125
Alternately, the speed of the pump can be adjusted to make the pump head equal
to that of the system.

From Eq. (7.9) the relation between speeds and pump heads at two conditions is

Example 7.2 is of cases with control valve throttling and pump speed control. In
large systems, the value of power saved can easily overbalance the extra cost of
variable speed drives, either motor or steam turbine.

When needed, greater head or greater capacity may be obtained by operating

several pumps in series or parallel.

In parallel operation, each pump develops the same head (equal to the system
head), and the flow is the sum of the flows that each pump delivers at the
common head.

In series operation, each pump has the same flow rate and the total head is the
sum of the heads developed by the individual pumps at the prevailing flow rate,
and equal to the system head. Example 7.1 deals with a pair of identical pumps,
and corresponding system and head curves are shown in Figure 7.17.
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 126
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 127
PUMP CHARACTERISTICS

A centrifugal pump is defined in the glossary at the end of this chapter as a

machine in which a rotor in a casing acts on a liquid to give it a high velocity
head that is in turn converted to pressure head by the time the liquid leaves the
pump.

Other common nomenclature relating to the construction and performance of

centrifugal and related kinds of pumps also is in that table.

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 128

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 129
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 130
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 131
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 132
 133
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 134
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 135
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 136
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 137
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 138
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 139
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 140
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 141
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 142
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 143
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 144
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 145
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 146
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 147
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 148
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 149
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 150
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 151
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 152
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 153
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 154
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 155
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 156
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 157
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 158
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 159
Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 160
FLOW OF FLUIDS
The transfer of fluids through piping and equipment is accompanied by friction
and may result in changes in pressure, velocity, and elevation.

These effects T require input of energy to maintain flow at desired rates.

In this chapter, the concepts and theory of fluid mechanics bearing on these
topics will be reviewed briefly and practical and empirical methods of sizing lines
and auxiliary equipment will be emphasized.

Dr R K Mewada
161–
APED-II Notes
PROPERTIES AND UNITS

The basis of flow relations is Newton’s relation between force, mass, and
acceleration, which is

F = (m/gc)a. (6.1)

When F and m are in Ib units, the numerical value of the coefficient is

gc = 32.174 Ib ft/lbf sec’. In some other units,

Since the common engineering units for both mass and force are 1 Ib, it is
essential to retain g, in all force-mass relations. The interconversions may
be illustrated with the example of viscosity whose basic definition is
force/(velocity)(distance).

Accordingly the viscosity in various units relative to that in SI units is

Dr R K Mewada
162–
APED-II Notes
In data books, viscosity may be recorded either in force or mass units. The
particular merit of SI units (kg, m, s, N) is that g, = 1 and much confusion
can be avoided by consistent use of that system.

Some numbers of frequent use in fluid flow problems are

Dr R K Mewada
163–
APED-II Notes
Data of densities of liquids are empirical in nature, but the effects of temperature,
pressure, and composition can be estimated; Suitable methods are described by
Reid et al. (Properties of Gases and Liquids, McGraw Hill, New York, 1977), the
API ReJining Data Book (American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC, 1983),
and the AIChE Data Prediction Manual (1984-date).

The densities of gases are represented by equations of state of which the

simplest is that of ideal gases; from this the density is given by:

where M is the molecular weight. For air, for example, with P in atm and T in OR,

For non ideal gases a general relation is

where the compressibility factor z is correlated empirically in terms of reduced

properties TIT, and P/P, and the acentric factor. This subject is treated for
example by Reid et al. (1977, p. 26) and Walas (1985, pp. 17, 70). Many PVT
equations of state are available. That of Redlich and Kwong may be written in the
form Dr R K Mewada
164–
APED-II Notes
which is suitable for solution by direct iteration as used in Example 6.1.

Flow rates are expressible as linear velocities or in volumetric, mass, or weight

units. Symbols for and relations between the several modes are summarized in
Table 6.1.

The several variables on which fluid flow depends may be gathered into a
smaller number of dimensionless groups, of which the Reynolds number and
friction factor are of particular importance.

They are defined and written in the common kinds of units also in Table 6.1.
Other dimensionless groups occur less frequently and will be mentioned as they
occur in this chapter; a long list is given in Perry’s Chemical Engineers
Handbook (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1984, p. 5.62).

Dr R K Mewada
165–
APED-II Notes
166
Dr R K Mewada
167–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
168–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
169–
APED-II Notes
ENERGY BALANCE OF A FLOWING FLUID

The energy terms associated with the flow of a fluid are

1. Elevation potential (g/gc)z,

2. Kinetic energy, u2/2gc,
3. Internal energy, U,
4. Work done in crossing the boundary, PV,
5. Work transfer across the boundary, Ws,
6. Heat transfer across the boundary, Q.

Figure 6.1 represents the two limiting kinds of regions over which energy
balances are of interest: one with uniform conditions throughout (completely
mixed), or one in plug flow in which gradients are present. With single inlet
and outlet streams of a uniform region, the change in internal energy within
the boundary is

170
For the plug flow condition of Figure 6.l(b), the balance is made in terms of
the differential changes across a differential length dL of the vessel, which is

where all terms are per unit mass

Dr R K Mewada
171–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
172–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
173–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
174–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
175–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
176–
APED-II Notes
Friction is introduced into the energy balance by noting that it is a mechanical
process, dWf, whose effect is the same as that of an equivalent amount of heat
transfer dQf Moreover, the total effective heat transfer results in a change in
entropy of the flowing liquid given by

TdS=dQ+dWf (6.11)

When the thermodynamic equivalent

dH = VdP + TdS (6.12)

and Eq. (6.11) are substituted into Eq. (6.10), the net result is

VdP + (l/gc) U du + (g/gc)dz = -(dWs + dWf), (6.13)

which is known as the mechanical energy balance. With the expression for
friction of Eq. (6.18) cited in the next section, the mechanical energy balance
becomes

Dr R K Mewada
177–
APED-II Notes
For an incompressible fluid, integration may be performed term by term with the
result

The apparent number of variables in Eq. (6.13) is reduced by the substitution

u = V / A for unit flow rate of mass, where A is the cross-sectional area, so
that

Integration of these energy balances for compressible fluids under several

conditions is covered in Section 6.7.

The frictional work loss W, depends on the geometry of the system and the
flow conditions and is an empirical function that will be explained later. When it
is known, Eq. (6.13) may be used to find a net work effect W, for otherwise
specified conditions.

The first three terms on the left of Eq. (6.14) may be grouped into a single
stored energy terms as
Dr R K Mewada
178–
APED-II Notes
 and the simpler form of the energy balance becomes

The units of every term in these energy balances are alternately: ft lb,/lb with
g, = 32.174 and g in ft/sec2 (32.174 at sea level). N m/kg = J/kg with g, = 1
and g in m/sec2 (1.000 at sea level) kgfm/kg with g, = 9.806 and g in m/sec2
(9.806 at sea level).

Example 6.3 is an exercise in conversion of units of the energy balances.

The sign convention is that work input is a negative quantity and consequently
results in an increase of the terms on the left of Eq. (6.17).

Similarly, work is produced by the flowing fluid only if the stored energy ∆E is
reduced.

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 179

LIQUIDS

Velocities in pipe lines are limited in practice because of

1. the occurrence of erosion.

2. economic balance between cost of piping and equipment and the cost of
power loss because of friction which increases sharply with velocity.

Although erosion is not serious in some cases at velocities as high as 10-15

ft/sec, conservative practice in the absence of specific knowledge limits
velocities to 5-6 ft/sec.

Economic optimum design of piping will be touched on later, but the rules of
Table 6.2 of typical linear velocities and pressure drops provide a rough guide
for many situations.

The correlations of friction in lines that will be presented are for new and clean
pipes. Usually a factor of safety of 20-40% is advisable because pitting or
deposits may develop over the years.

180
There are no recommended fouling factors for friction as there are for heat
transfer, but instances are known of pressure drops to double in water lines over
a period of 10 years or so.

In lines of circular cross section, the pressure drop is represented by

For other shapes and annular spaces, D is replaced by the hydraulic

Diameter

Dh = 4(cross section)/wetted perimeter.

For an annular space, Dh = Dz – D1equation

In laminar flow the friction is given by the theoretical Poiseuille

181
At higher Reynolds numbers, the friction factor is affected by the roughness of
the surface, measured as the ratio E/D of projections on the surface to the
diameter of the pipe. Values of E are as follows; glass and plastic pipe
essentially have E = 0.

The equation of Colebrook [J. Inst. Ciu. Eng. London, 11, pp. 133-156
(1938-1939)] is based on experimental data of Nikuradze [Ver. Dtsch. Ing.
Forschungsh. 356 (1932)].

–
Dr R K Mewada182
APED-II Notes
Other equations equivalent to this one but explicit in f have been devised.

A literature review and comparison with more recent experimental data are
made by Olujic [Chem. Eng., 91-94, (14 Dec. 19Sl)l. Two of the simpler but
adequate equations are

183
Dr R K Mewada
184–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
185–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
186–
APED-II Notes
three equations agree with each other within 1% or so. The Colebrook equation
predicts values 1-3% higher than some more recent measurements of Murin
(1948), cited by Olujic (Chemical Engineering, 91-93, Dec. 14, 1981).

For orientation purposes, the pressure drop in steel pipes may be found by the
rapid method of Table 6.3, which is applicable to highly turbulent flow for which
the friction factor is given by von Karman's equation

Under some conditions it is necessary to employ Eq. (6.18) in differential

form. In terms of mass flow rate,

Example 6.4 is of a case in which the density and viscosity vary along the
length of the line, and consequently the Reynolds number and the friction
factor also vary.

Dr R K Mewada
187–
APED-II Notes
FITINGS AND VALVES

Friction due to fittings, valves and other disturbances of flow in pipe lines is
accounted for by the concepts of either their equivalent lengths of pipe or
multiples of the velocity head.

Accordingly, the pressure drop equation assumes either of the forms

Values of equivalent lengths Li and coefficients K, are given in Tables 6.4 and
6.5. Another well-documented table of Ki is in the Chemical Engineering
Handbook (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1984 p. 5.38).

Comparing the two kinds of parameters,

Dr R K Mewada
188–
APED-II Notes
so that one or the other or both of these factors depend on the friction factor and
consequently on the Reynolds number and possibly E. Such a dependence was
developed by Hooper [Chem. Eng., 96-100, (24 Aug. 1981)] in the equation

where D is in inches and values of K, and K2 are in Table 6.6. Hooper states
that the results are applicable to both laminar and turbulent regions and for a
wide range of pipe diameters. Example 6.5 compares the several systems of
pipe fittings resistances. The Ki method usually is regarded as more accurate.

ORIFICES

In pipe lines, orifices are used primarily for measuring flow rates but
sometimes as mixing devices. The volumetric flow rate through a thin plate
orifice is

189
For corner taps the coefficient is given by

Dr R K Mewada
190–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
191–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
192–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
193–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
194–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
195–
APED-II Notes
POWER REQUIREMENTS

A convenient formula in common engineering units for power consumption in

the transfer of liquids is

Efficiency data of drivers are in Chapter 4 and of pumps in Chapter 7. For

example, with 500 gpm, a pressure difference of 75 psi, pump efficiency of 0.7,
and driver efficiency of 0.9, the power requirement is 32.9 HP or 24.5 kw.

Dr R K Mewada
196–
APED-II Notes
PIPELINE NETWORKS

A system for distribution of fluids such as cooling water in a process plant

consists of many interconnecting pipes in series, parallel, or branches.

For purposes of analysis, a point at which several lines meet is called a node
and each is assigned a number as on the figure of Example 6.6.

A flow rate from node i to node j is designated as Qij the same subscript
notation is used for other characteristics of the line such as f, L, D, and NRe.

Three principles are applicable to establishing flow rates, pressures, and

dimensions throughout the network:

1. Each node i is characterized by a unique pressure Pi.

2. A material balance is preserved at each node: total flow in equals
total flow out, or net flow equals zero.

Dr R K Mewada
197–
APED-II Notes
3. The friction equation aplies to the line connecting
node i with j.

In the usual network problem, the terminal pressures, line lengths, and line
diameters are specified and the flow rates throughout are required to be found.

The solution can be generalized, however, to determine other unknown

quantities equal in number to the number of independent friction equations that
describe the network.

The procedure is illustrated with the network of Example 6.6.

The three lines in parallel betwken nodes 2 and 5 have the same pressure
drop P2 - Ps. In series lines such as 37 and 76 the flow rate is the same and a
single equation represents friction in the series:

Dr R K Mewada
198–
APED-II Notes
The number of flow rates involved is the same as the number of lines in the
network, which is 9, plus the number of supply and destination lines, which is 5,
for a total of 14.

The number of material balances equals the number of nodes plus one for the
overall balance, making a total of 7.

The solution of the problem requires 14 - 7 = 7 more relations to be established.

These are any set of 7 friction equations that involve the pressures at all the
nodes. The material balances and pressure drop equations for this example are
tabulated.

From Eqs. (4)-(10) of Example 6.6, any combination of seven quantities Qij
and/or Lij and/or Dij can be found.

Assuming that Qij the are to be found, estimates of ail seven are made to start,
and the corresponding Reynolds numbers and friction factors are found
from Eqs. (2) and (3). Improved values of the Qij then are found

Dr R K Mewada199
–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
200–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
201–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
202–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
203–
APED-II Notes
from Eqs. (4)-(10) with the aid of the Newton-Raphson method for simultaneous
nonlinear equations.

Some simplification is permissible for water distribution systems in metallic

pipes. Then the Hazen-Williams formula is adequate, namely

with linear dimensions in ft and Q in cuft/sec.

The iterative solution method for flowrate distribution of Hardy Cross is popular.
Examples of that procedure are presented in many books on fluid mechanics,
for example, those of Bober and Kenyon (Fluid Mechanics, Wiley, New York,
1980) and Streeter and Wylie (Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1979).

With particularly simple networks, some rearrangement of equations sometimes

can be made to simplify the solution. Example 6.7 is of such a case.

Dr R K Mewada
204–
APED-II Notes
OPTIMUM PIPE DIAMETER

In a chemical plant the capital investment in process piping is in the range of 25-
40% of the total plant investment, and the power consumption for pumping,
which depends on the line size, is a substantial fraction of the total cost of
utilities.

Accordingly, economic optimization of pipe size is a necessary aspect of plant

design. As the diameter of a line increases, its cost goes up but is accompanied
by decreases in consumption of utilities and costs of pumps and drivers because
of reduced friction.

Somewhere there is an optimum balance between operating cost and annual

capital cost.

For small capacities and short lines, near optimum line sizes may be obtained on
the basis of typical velocities or pressure drops such as those of Table 6.2.

When large capacities are involved and lines are long and expensive materials of
construction are needed, the selection of line diameters may need to be
subjected to complete economic analysis.
Dr R K Mewada
205–
APED-II Notes
Still another kind of factor may need to be taken into account with highly viscous
materials: the possibility that heating the fluid may pay off by reducing the
viscosity and consequently the power requirement.

Adequate information must be available for installed costs of piping and pumping
equipment. Although suppliers quotations are desirable, published correlations
may be adequate.

Some data and references to other published sources are given in Chapter 20. A
simplification in locating the optimum usually is permissible by ignoring the costs
of pumps and drivers since they are essentially insensitive to pipe diameter near
the optimum value.

This fact is clear in Example 6.8 for instance and in the examples worked out
by Happel and Jordan (Chemical Process Economics, Dekker, New York,
1975).

Two shortcut rules have been derived by Peters and Timmerhaus (1980; listed in
Chapter 1 References) for optimum diameters of steel pipes of 1-in. size or
greater, for turbulent and laminar flow:

Dr R K Mewada
206–
APED-II Notes
D is in inches, Q in cuftlsec, p in Ib/cuft, and p in cP.

The factors involved in the derivation are: power cost = 0.055/kWh, friction loss
due to fittings is 35% that of the straight length, annual fixed charges are 20% of
installation cost, pump efficiency is 50%, and cost of 1-in. IPS schedule 40 pipe
is $0.45/ft.

Formulas that take additional factors into account also are developed in that
book.

Other detailed studies of line optimization are made by Happel and Jordan
(Chemical Process Economics, Dekker, New York, 1975) and by Skelland
(1967).

The latter works out a problem in simultaneous optimization of pipe diameter

and pumping temperature in laminar flow.

Example 6.8 takes into account pump costs, alternate kinds of drivers, and alloy
construction.

Dr R K Mewada
207–
APED-II Notes
NON-NEWTONIAN LIQUIDS

Not all classes of fluids conform to the frictional behavior described in Section
6.3. This section will describe the commonly recognized types of liquids, from the
point of view of flow behavior, and will summarize the data and techniques that
are used for analyzing friction in such lines.

VISCOSITY BEHAVIOR

The distinction in question between different fluids is in their viscosity behavior,

or relation between shear stress t (force per unit area) and the rate of
deformation expressed as a lateral velocity gradient, y = du/dx.

The concept is represented on Figure 6.2(a): one of the planes is subjected to a

shear stress and is translated parallel to a fixed plane at a constant velocity but a
velocity gradient is developed between the planes.

The relation between the variables may be written

Dr R K Mewada
208–
APED-II Notes
where, by definition, p is the viscosity. In the simplest case, the viscosity is
constant, and the fluid is called Newtonian.

In the other cases, more complex relations between r and .i, involving more than
one constant are needed, and dependence on time also may be
present.

Classifications of now Newtonian fluids are made according to the relation

between r and ý by formula or shape of plot, or according to the mechanism of
the resistance of the fluid to deformation.

The concept of an apparent viscosity

is useful. In the Newtonian case it is constant, but in general it can be a function

of r, y, and time .

Non-Newtonian behavior occurs in solutions or melts of polymers and in

suspensions of solids in liquids. Some r-y plots are shown in Figure 6.2, and the
main classes are described following.
Dr R K Mewada
209–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
210–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada –
211
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
212–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
213–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
214–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
215–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
216–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
217–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
218–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
219–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
220–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
221–
APED-II Notes
shown in Figure 6.2, and the main classes are described following.
1. Pseudoplastic liquids have a r-y plot that is concave downward. The simplest
mathematical representation of such relations is a power law

with n < 1. This equation has two constants; others with many more than two
constants also have been proposed. The apparent viscosity is

Since n is less than unity, the apparent viscosity decreases with the deformation
rate.

Examples of such materials are some polymeric solutions or melts such as

rubbers, cellulose acetate and napalm; suspensions such as paints,
mayonnaise, paper pulp, or detergent slurries; and dilute suspensions of inert
solids.

Pseudoplastic properties of wallpaper paste account for good spreading and

adhesion, and those of printing inks prevent their running at low speeds yet allow
them to spread easily in high speed machines.
Dr R K Mewada
222–
APED-II Notes
 2. Dilatant liquids have rheological behavior essentiallyopposite those of
pseudoplastics insofar as viscosity behavior is concerned. The 2-4 plots are
concave upward and the power law applies

but with n greater than unity; other mathematical relations also have been
proposed.

The apparent viscosity, increases with deformation rate.

Examples of dilatant materials are pigment-vehicle suspensions such as paints

and printing inks of high concentrations; starch, potassium silicate, and gum
arabic in water; quicksand or beach sand in water.

Dilatant properties of wet cement aggregates permit tamping operations in

which small impulses produce more complete settling.

Vinyl resin plastisols exhibit pseudoplastic behavior at low deformation rates

and dilatant behavior at higher ones
Dr R K Mewada
223–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
224–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
225–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
226–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
227–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
228–
APED-II Notes
3. Bingham plastics require a finite amount of shear stress before
deformation begins, then the deformation rate is linear. Mathematically,

where µB is called the coefficient of plastic viscosity. Examples of materials

that approximate Bingham behavior are drilling muds; suspensions of
chalk, grains, and thoria; and sewage sludge. Bingham characteristics
allow toothpaste to stay on the brush.

4. Generalized Bingham or yield-power law fluids are represented by

the equation

Yield-dilatant (n >1) materials are rare but several cases of yield

pseudoplastics exist. For instance, data from the literature of a 20% clay in
water suspension are represented by the numbers to = 7.3 dyn/cm2, K =
1.296 dyn(sec)”/cm2 and n = 0.483 (Govier and Aziz, 1972, p. 40).

Solutions of 0.5-5.0% carboxypolymethylene also exhibit this kind of

behavior, but at lower concentrations the yield stress is zero.

Dr R K Mewada
229–
APED-II Notes
5. Rheopectic fluids have apparent viscosities that increase with time,
particularly at high rates of shear as shown on Figure 6.3. Figure 6.2(f) indicates
typical hysteresis effects for such materials. Some examples are suspensions of
gypsum in water, bentonite sols, vanadium pentoxide sols, and the polyester of
Figure 6.3.

6. Thixotropic fluids have a time-dependent rheological behavior in which the

shear stress diminishes with time at a constant deformation rate, and exhibits
hysteresis [Fig. 6.2(f)].

Among the substances that behave this way are some paints, ketchup, gelatine
solutions, mayonnaise, margarine, mustard, honey, and shaving cream. Nondrip
paints, for example, are thick in the can but thin on the brush. The time-effect in
the case of the thixotropic crude of Figure 6.4(a) diminishes at high rates of
deformation.

For the same crude, Figure 6.4(b) represents the variation of pressure gradient
in a pipe line with time and axial position; the gradient varies fivefold over a
distance of about 2 miles after 200min. A relatively simple relation involving five
constants to represent thixotropic behavior is cited by Govier and Aziz (1972, p.
43):
Dr R K Mewada
230–
APED-II Notes
The constants µo, a, b, and c and the structural parameter are obtained from
rheological measurements in a straightforward manner.

7. Viscoelastic fluids have the ability of partially recovering their original states
after stress is removed. Essentially all molten polymers are viscoelastic as are
solutions of long chain molecules such as polyethylene oxide, polyacrylamides,
sodium carboxymethylcellulose, and others.

More homely examples are egg whites, dough, jello, and puddings, as well as
bitumen and napalm. This property enables eggwhites to entrap air, molten
polymers to form threads, and such fluids to climb up rotating shafts whereas
purely viscous materials are depressed by the centrifugal force.

Two concepts of deformability that normally are applied only to solids, but
appear to have examples of gradation between solids and liquids, are those of
shear modulus E, which is

E = shear stress/deformation, (6.43)

Dr R K Mewada
231–
APED-II Notes
and relaxation time which is defined in the relation between the residual
stress and the time after release of an imposed shear stress, namely,

Dr R K Mewada
232–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
233–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
234–
APED-II Notes
and that of relaxation time (sec) is

Examples thus appear to exist of gradations between the properties of normally

recognized true liquids (water) and true solids.

Elastic properties usually have a negligible effect on resistance to flow in

straight pipes, but examples have been noted that the resistances of fittings
may be as much as 10 times as great for viscoelastic liquids as for Newtonian
ones.

In the last model, the parameters may be somewhat dependent on the shear
stress and deformation rate, and should be determined at magnitudes of those
quantities near those to be applied in the plant. The shear stress z, at the wall is
independent of the model and is derived from pressure drop measurements as
Dr R K Mewada
235–
APED-II Notes
 Friction Factor. In rheological literature the friction factor is defined as

This value is one-fourth of the friction factor used in Section 6.3. For the sake
of consistency with the literature, the definition of Eq. (6.50) will be used with
non-Newtonian fluids in the present section.

Table 6.2 lists theoretical equations for friction factors in laminar flows. In
terms of the generalized power law, Eq. (6.48),

Dr R K Mewada
236–
APED-II Notes
By analogy with the Newtonian relation, f = 16/Re, the denominator of Eq. (6.52)
is designated as a modified Reynolds number,

The subscript MR designates Metzner-Reed, who introduced this form. Scale

Up. The design of pipelines and other equipment for handling non-Newtonian
fluids may be based on model equations with parameters obtained on the basis
of measurements with viscometers or with pipelines of substantial diameter.

The shapes of plots of t, against 9 or 8VID may reveal the appropriate model.
Examples 6.9 and 6.10 are such analyses.

In critical cases of substantial economic importance, it may be advisable to

perform flow tests-Q against AP-in lines of moderate size and to scale up the
results to plant size, without necessarily trying to fit one of the accepted models.
Among the effects that may not be accounted for by such models are time

Dr R K Mewada
237–
APED-II Notes
dependence, pipe roughness, pipe fitting resistance, wall slippage, and
viscoelastic behavior.

Although some effort has been devoted to them, none of these particular effects
has been well correlated.

Viscoelasticity has been found to have little effect on friction in straight lines but
does have a substantial effect on the resistance of pipe fittings. Pipe roughness
often is accounted for by assuming that the relative effects of different roughness
ratios E/D are represented by the Colebrook equation (Eq. 6.20) for Newtonian
fluids.

Wall slippage due to trace amounts of some polymers in solution is an active

field of research (Hoyt, 1972) and is not well predictable.

The scant literature on pipeline scaleup is reviewed by Heywood (1980). Some

investigators have assumed a relation of the
form

Dr R K Mewada
238–
APED-II Notes
and determined the three constants K, a, and b from measurements on several
diameters of pipe.

The exponent a on the velocity appears to be independent of the diameter if the

roughness ratio E/D is held constant.

The exponent b on the diameter has been found to range from 0.2 to 0.25. How
much better this kind of analysis is than assuming that a = b, as in Eq. (6.48),
has not been established.

If it can be assumed that the effect of differences in E/D is small for the data of
Examples 6.9 and 6.10, the measurements should plot as separate lines for
each diameter, but such a distinction is not obvious on those plots in the laminar
region, although it definitely is in the turbulent region of the limestone
slurry data.

Observations of the performance of existing large lines, as in the case of Figure

6.4, clearly yields information of value in analyzing the effects of some changes
in operating conditions or for the design of new lines for the same system.

Dr R K Mewada
239–
APED-II Notes
Laminar Flow. Theoretically derived equations for volumetric flow rate and
friction factor are included for several models in Table 6.7. Each model employs
a specially defined Reynolds number, and the Bingham models also involve the
Hedstrom number,

These dimensionless groups also appear in empirical correlations of the

turbulent flow region.

Although even in the approximate Eq. (9) of Table 6.7, group He appears to
affect the friction factor, empirical correlations such as Figure 6.5(b) and the
data analysis of Example 6.10 indicate that the friction factor is determined by
the Reynolds number alone, in every case by an equation of the form, f = 16/Re,
but with Re defined differently for each model.

Table 6.7 collects several relations for laminar flows of fluids.

Dr R K Mewada
240–
APED-II Notes
Transitional Flow. Reynolds numbers and friction factors at which the flow
changes from laminar to turbulent are indicated by the breaks in the plots of
Figures 6.4(a) and (b).

For Bingham models, data are qhown directly on Figure 6.6. For power-law
liquids an equatim for the critical Reynolds number is due to Mishra and
Triparthi [Trans. ZChE 51, T141 (1973)],

The Bingham data of Figure 6.6 are represented by the equations of Hanks
[AZChE J. 9, 306 (1963)],

Dr R K Mewada
241–
APED-II Notes
Turbulent Flow. Correlations have been achieved for all four models, Eqs.
(6.45)-(6.48).

For power-law flow the correlation of Dodge and Metzner (1959) is shown in
Figure 6.5(a) and is represented by the equation

These authors and others have demonstrated that these results can represent
liquids with a variety of behavior over limited ranges by

Dr R K Mewada
242–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
243–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
244–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
245–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
246–
APED-II Notes
evaluating K' and n' in the range of shear stress t, = DAP/4L that will prevail in
the required situation. Bingham flow is represented by Figure 6.5(b) in terms of
Reynolds and Hedstrom numbers.

Theoretical relations for generalized Bingham flow [Eq. (6.47)] have been
devised by Torrance [S. Afr. Mech. Eng. 13, 89 (1963)l. They are

In some ranges of operation, materials may be represented approximately

equally well by several models, as in Example 6.11 where the power-law and
Bingham models are applied
Dr R K Mewada
247–
APED-II Notes
GASES

The differential energy balances of Eqs. (6.10) and (6.15) with the friction term
of Eq. (6.18) can be integrated for compressible fluid flow under certain
restrictions. Three cases of particular importance are of isentropic or
isothermal or adiabatic flows. Equations will be developed for them for ideal
gases, and the procedure for nonideal gases also will be indicated.

ISENTROPIC FLOW

In short lines, nozzles, and orifices, friction and heat transfer may be
neglected, which makes the flow essentially isentropic. Work transfer also is
negligible in such equipment. The resulting theory is a basis of design of
nozzles that will generate high velocity gases for power production with
turbines. With the assumptions indicated,Eq. (6.10) becomes simply

Dr R K Mewada
248–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
249–
APED-II Notes
Dr R K Mewada
250–
APED-II Notes
Codes and Standards:
What is this???
Why we need to study it????

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 251

 Codes and Standards:
The terms STANDARD and CODE are used interchangeably,
though CODE should really be reserved for a code of practice
covering say, a recommended design or operating procedure; and
STANDARD for preferred sizes, compositions, etc.

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 252

 Codes and Standards:
In engineering practice
they cover:
1. Materials, properties and compositions
2. Testing procedures for performance,
compositions, quality.
3. Preferred sizes; for example, tubes, plates,
sections.
4. Design methods, inspection, fabrication.
5. Codes of practice, for plant operation and safety

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 253

 Codes and Standards:
Common examples for
Standards:
- Screw size, size of ready made shoes, cloths,
-Pipe sizes and thickness, MOC,
- ANSI, API, ASTM, ASME, TEMA etc

Codes:
- Code of conduct defined by Government, driving with
alcohol drinking
- Similarly for every design of equipment, fix procedure is
defined to be followed, correlations to be used etc.

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 254

 Thank You

Dr R K Mewada – APED-II Notes 255