8/13/2024

Reverse Engineering: Introduction

Radha Raman Mishra, Ph. D.

Course Instructor & Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Engineering

Process of designing, manufacturing, assembling, and maintaining products and

systems.

Engineering

Forward Engineering (FE) Reverse Engineering (RE)

It is the traditional process of The process of duplicating an existing

moving from high-level abstractions part, subassembly, or product,
and logical designs to the physical without drawings, documentation, or
implementation of a system. a computer model
2
Wego Wang, Reverse Engineering Technology of Reinvention, CRC Press, 2011.

1
 8/13/2024

Generic product development process

The sequence of steps or activities that an enterprise employs to

• Conceive,
• Design, and
• Commercialize a product.

3
K T Ulrich and S D Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”, 5th edition, MaGraw-Hill Companies, 2012.

Characteristics of successful product development

Five specific dimensions –

• Product quality

• Product cost

• Development time

• Development cost

• Development capability

4
K T Ulrich and S D Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”, 5th edition, MaGraw-Hill Companies, 2012.

2
 8/13/2024

Economy of successful product

Minimum C and t
values are desirable
t

Typical cash flow for new successful product

5
K T Ulrich and S D Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”, 5th edition, MaGraw-Hill Companies, 2012.

Market competition of products

?? Challenging
Maturity (A)
Maturity (B)

Product A
Decline (A) Decline (B)
Sales Volume

Growth (A) Growth (B)

Product B
RE helps to
Introduction
(A) overcome
Introduction (B) challenges

O
Time
Life cycle of the successful products
6
K T Ulrich and S D Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”, 5th edition, MaGraw-Hill Companies, 2012.

3
 8/13/2024

RE (Definitions)

The practice of reverse engineering “The process of duplicating an item

“Starting with a finished product or functionally and dimensionally by
process and working backward in physically examining and measuring
logical fashion to discover the existing parts to develop the
underlying new technology” technical data (physical and material
characteristics) required for
competitive procurement”

The Society of Manufacturing Engineers The Military Handbook MILHDBK-115A

(SME) (2006)

7
Wego Wang, Reverse Engineering Technology of Reinvention, CRC Press, 2011.

Abstractions levels in FE & RE

Software program development

Fig. Relationship between different terms

E J Chikofsky and J. H. Cross II, “Reverse Engineering and Design Recovery: A Taxonomy”, IEEE Sofwares, 1990. 8

4
 8/13/2024

FE vs RE

Parameters Forward Engineering Reverse Engineering

Based on product improvement

Basic Based on customer requirements
in existing product

Ideas about requirements from

Certainty Product to cater the needs
the product

Nature Prescriptive Adaptive

Needed skills High Proficiency Low level of expertise

Time required More Less

Accuracy Model must be precise and Incomplete models also provide

complete some information
9

Brief history of RE
The first model airplane developed by wright brothers in 1903 is one of the most
noticeable examples -

Movement of flying birds

The model plane of the Wright brothers

Reinvented a manmade “bird” by imitating the functionality of a flying creature in

nature using the concepts of reverse engineering concepts
Historical first flight on December 17, 1903.
10
Wego Wang, Reverse Engineering Technology of Reinvention, CRC Press, 2011.

10

5
 8/13/2024

Brief history of RE
World War II: B-29 Superfortress bomber Tupolev Tu-4 bomber (Soviet Union)
RE of Military Equipment
• US
• Soviet union
• Japan

The reverse-engineering effort involved –

• 900 factories & research institutes (1 year, design)
• 105,000 drawings were made
• 20 copies of the aircraft: by the end of 2nd year
11
Wego Wang, Reverse Engineering Technology of Reinvention, CRC Press, 2011.

11

Brief history of RE
Korean War: F-86 fighter MiG-15 fighter
RE of Military
Equipment

12
Wego Wang, Reverse Engineering Technology of Reinvention, CRC Press, 2011.

12

6
 8/13/2024

Brief history of RE
RE of human body parts

Artificial toes from Iron prosthetic, Gotz von

Ancient Egypt Berlichingen (1480-1562) Artificial Arm (1906)

[Link] 13

13

Brief history of RE
The aviation industry:

An unpaved airport in early A typical modern open-

days. (From the Henry Ford field, paved-runway airport. An early radial reciprocal aircraft engine
Museum)
• The maturity of the aviation industry (a technology-driven to an economic-driven
business)
• The market demands the least expensive certificated spare parts
This shift provided a potential market for reverse engineering
14

14

7
 8/13/2024

Primary functions of RE

1) To duplicate or produce original equipment manufacturer (OEM)

parts whose design data are not available

2) To repair or replace worn-out parts without knowledge of the

original design data, and

3) To generate a model or prototype based on an existing part for

analysis

15

15

RE process

Develop new design

Modifications in
existing design
Geometric Segmentation
Processing of CAD model
information and surface
point cloud generation
Collection fitting
Cloning /
reproduction

Inspection /
verification
Transformation from
physical to digital world Interface with other manufacturing process Major applications
Zhaohui Geng & Bopaya Bidanda (2017) Review of reverse engineering systems – current state of the art, Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 12:2, 161-172. 16

16

8
 8/13/2024

RE: product development cycle

Product development cycle

17
V Raja, KJ Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

17

RE: Product development cycle

In Reverse engineering –

• Physical model is the

source of information for
the CAD model (physical-
to-digital process)

• Compresses product
development cycle time to
Physical-to-digital process
shorten lead time to
market a new product

18
V Raja, KJ Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

18

9
 8/13/2024

Need
Following are some of the reasons for using reverse engineering:

• The original manufacturer no longer exists, but a customer needs the product

• The original manufacturer of a product no longer produces the product

• The original product design documentation has been lost or never existed
• Creating data to refurbish or manufacture a part for which –
 there are no CAD data, or
 the data have become obsolete or lost
• Inspection and/or Quality Control–Comparing a fabricated part to its CAD
description or to a standard item

19
V Raja, KJ Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

19

Need
• Some bad features of a product need to be eliminated e.g., excessive wear might
indicate where a product should be improved

• Strengthening the good features of a product based on long-term usage

• Analyzing the good and bad features of competitors’ products

• Exploring new avenues to improve product performance and features

• Creating 3-D data from a model or sculpture for animation in games and movies

20
V Raja, KJ Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

20

10
 8/13/2024

Need
• Creating 3-D data from an individual, model or sculpture to create, scale, or
reproduce artwork

• Architectural and construction documentation and measurement

• Fitting clothing or footwear to individuals and determining the anthropometry of a

population

• Generating data to create dental or surgical prosthetics, tissue engineered body

parts, or for surgical planning.

• Documentation and reproduction of crime scenes

21
V Raja, KJ Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

21

Advantages
• Provides enormous opportunities to improve –
 quality,
materials properties,
efficiency of re-design,
manufacture and
Analysis

• Applied to re-create either the high-value commercial parts for business profits or
the valueless legacy parts for historical restoration

• Proactive maintenance

• Lead time reduction

• Promotes innovation activities

22

22

11
 8/13/2024

Limitations

• Legal ramifications if don’t follow copyright and patent laws

• Selection of component or product for RE

• Knowledge of software to develop CAD model

• Sophisticated equipment for digitization

• Need of advanced computer-based manufacturing processes

23

23

Applications

24

24

12
 8/13/2024

Software and information technology

BIOS (basic input/output system)

Product and process improvement

• To improve their own code or
• To improve interoperability between
programs Microprocessor chips

Intel Corp Advanced Micro Cyrix Corp

Devices Inc
Cyber security
• Viruses and other malware Intelligence and Espionage
• Flows in software • Spying
• Protection against hackers • Information for security of country
• Save systems from cyber attacks 25

25

Forensic science
• Identification of reasons for damage in the products
• Data recovery from the electronic devices
• Malware identification and safety
• Investigations of crime
A loaded 33-foot-long container

A split in the end panel was observed.

Mechanical Engineer: the riveted seam between the two end panels in the side of the
container had split open from bottom to top.
Forensic reverse engineers: microscopic examination: no internal fault, wear, or
corrosion, investigators found.
Reason: overloading on neighboring rivets if one rivet near the end of a seam failed
Hardness test: rivets were well below the strength indicated on the drawing.
Manufacturing defect: rivets were set without being first solution treated
Lewis, Peter Rhys; Reynolds, Ken; Gagg, Colin, Forensic Materials Engineering: Case Studies, CRC Press, 2003. 26

26

13
 8/13/2024

Medical systems

Design / Re-creation of Parts

High Resolution & Detailed Scans

Rapid Capture of Complex Shaped Components

Digital Assembly Analysis
27
[Link]

27

Architecture and civil engineering

Livio De Lucaa, Philippe Veronb,, Michel Florenzanoa, Reverse engineering of architectural buildings based on a hybrid modeling approach, Computers & Graphics
30 (2006) 160–176. 28

28

14
 8/13/2024

Shipbuilding

Symmetry analysis of a towing tank ship Nave Argo and its screws shapes of a sailing boat.
model

F. Menna, E. Nocerino, A. Scamardella, Reverse Engineering And 3d Modelling For Digital Documentation Of Maritime Heritage, Volume XXXVIII-5/W16, 2011 ISPRS
29
Trento 2011 Workshop, 2-4 March 2011, Trento, Italy

29

Aviation industry

• Outside contour development

• Parts reproduction lacking dimensional drawings
• Quality control
• Damage assessment Mode development

• Aircraft dimensional tolerance and straightness

• Part reproduction
• Propeller blade inspection
• Corrosion inspection

CFD/FEA Analysis
Wing Analysis 30
[Link]

30

15
 8/13/2024

Automobile industry

Digital Model
Clay Model Iterations Competitive Benchmarking

CFD Analysis Accident Investigation

31
[Link]

31

Thank you
[Link]@[Link]

32

32

16
 8/28/2024

Methodologies and Techniques for RE

Radha Raman Mishra, Ph. D.

Course Instructor & Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Computer Aided Engineering (CAE)

Automation

CAE CAD CAM

Design formalizes ideas Fabrication of the developed

through computer modeling models into real-world objects

1
 8/28/2024

Computer Aided RE (CARE)

CAD
Geometric Segmentation
Physical Processing of CAD model
Model
information
point cloud
and surface
generation CAM
collection fitting

Scanning

Contact scanning Non-contact scanning

(touch probe) (Optical scanning device) 3

Scanning – traditional approach in RE

Also know as Contact type or Non computer vision approaches

1. Measurement using calipers

• Allows to determine accurate diameters,
lengths, and other dimensions of objects
• Measured data is used to lay out a
computer model manually using CAD
primitives
• Manual process
Measurement of disc brake

Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 4

2
 8/28/2024

Scanning – traditional approach in RE

Challenges in using Calipers

• A free-form surface (nonplanar and

nonquadratic)

• Requires significant effort for

complicated objects and surfaces

• Calipers become impractical in such

cases
Free form machined surface*

Alternative ??
*M. KaymakciIsmail L. Lazoglu, Tool path selection strategies for complex sculptured surface machining, Machining Science and Technology, 2008, 12(1):119-132
5
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

Scanning – traditional approach in RE

CMM (Coordinate Measuring Machine)

Part measurement using CMM

• The probe allows accurate measurements

along each axis relative to the standard.

• Generates 3-D coordinate points as the probe

Conceptual view of a CMM
moves across a surface
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 6

3
 8/28/2024

Scanning – traditional approach in RE

CMM (Modes)
• Tight spaces are a point of emphasis

• A CMM cannot measure at that location,

If the probe cannot reach the point due
to –
Extension constraints (i.e., the point
is too far) or
limited space (i.e., the probe is too
large)

• Nee of a more standoff measurement

3-axis CMM (Manual)
5-axis CMM (Computer controlled)

Computer vision approaches

[Link] 7
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

Scanning – computer visions approach in RE

Aim: To develop solutions through sensors such as video cameras or other imaging-
based systems.

Stereovision –

• Two cameras operate in a manner similar to human eyes

• Shown potential in applications such as navigation planning and obstacle
avoidance for Mars Rover missions

• Two types –
 Passive stereovision
 Active Stereovision
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 8

4
 8/28/2024

Scanning – computer visions approach in RE

Passive stereovision: need to establish correspondence between a point in one
camera’s image and the same point in the second camera’s image.

Input Image* Edge Image*

• If established the correspondence, provides accurate stereo depth map

• Correspondence is an elusive problem as it do not rely on active forms of

illumination, except ambient light.

• Unable to offer the accuracy that industrial RE applications demand.

9
Y Sawano, J Miura, Y Shirai, Man Chasing Robot by an Environment Recognition Using Stereo Vision, Human Friendly Mechatronics, 2001, 241-246

Scanning – computer visions approach in RE

Active stereovision: one of the stereo cameras with a well-defined light source.
A laser is typically the light source of choice.

• laser-based illumination allows more accurate depth measurements than

traditional passive illumination stereo

• These major categories of illumination control are –

 Continuous wave modulation,
 Time-of-flight estimation, and
 Structured-light triangulation

Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 10

10

5
 8/28/2024

Scanning – computer visions approach in RE

Continuous wave systems: measures depth by using a coherent light source, i.e., a
laser, and measure phase differences of the light wave as it travels to and from the
object.

Active stereo example of a continuous wave system

Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 11

11

Scanning – computer visions approach in RE

2. Time-of-flight systems: : measures the time required for a laser pulse to travel to
and return from an object

Active stereo example of a time-of-flight system

Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 12

12

6
 8/28/2024

Scanning – computer visions approach in RE

3. Structured-light systems: computes depth through geometric triangulation

Active stereo example of a structured-light system

Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 13

13

Scanning – computer visions approach in RE

Accuracy of active stereovision techniques: depends upon –

• Camera resolution (primary parameter)

• Geometric dimensions and
• Illumination precision,

• System geometry and illumination are not as critical.

• Structured-light systems offer a solution more practical than passive stereo in

achieving the accuracy

• Thus, suitable for an RE system

Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 14

14

7
 8/28/2024

Traditional vs Computer vision approaches

• Accuracy:
 CMM: mechanical control of the probe (ultra high: 1 -2 µm; moderate: 10-20 µm)
 Active stereo system: solid-state sensors (mm)
• Standoff nature: computer vision systems offers two advantages –
 Avoid damage to either the object or the measurement probe
 DO not get restricted while measuring too high/low temperature objects
 Path planning is easy
 Avoid wedging
• Cost: In case of CMM, few microns precision requires huge investment as compared
to computer vision system
• However, Computer vison is unable to compete with CMM for industrial uses
• Research in Computer Vision Indicates that higher accuracy will be achieved with more
precise laser and higher resolution imaging sensors.
15
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

15

Structured-light Range Imaging

Principle: geometric triangulation is used to measure the distance from the camera to
the object by analyzing geometry of the laser, camera, and object are exploited to
recover the distance
The distance, or range value (r), is a function of
three parameters:
• Baseline distance between the light source and
the camera (B)
• Viewing angle of the camera
• Illumination angle of the light source (α)

r = F (α ,B,i, j)
Active stereo example of a structured-light system

where F is a function, possibly nonlinear and terms i & j are the horizontal and vertical
positions, respectively, of a pixel in the camera image
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 16

16

8
 8/28/2024

Pixel
• The fundamental picture element from a digital camera

• Commonly images are represented as a matrix

• A pixel is an element of the matrix

• It is the brightest spot where the light source falls on the imaging plane of the
camera.

• Quality of a digital camera in terms of the number of pixels (a 1-megapixel 960 rows
× 1280 columns)

Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 17

17

Sources of illumination

For 3D range imaging, the following source illumination categories are used –

• Single-point laser source

• Sheet-of-light laser source

• Coded-light patterns

The primary difference between these three illumination

methods is the speed with which one can collect data.

Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 18

18

9
 8/28/2024

Single point laser source

• Pixel location changes with increasing range

Demonstration of how a structured-light system determines distance.

Measurement: using raster scan of a stationary object, the pixel can

be measured as –
• Image has M × N pixels (i.e., 0 i < M – 1, 0 j < N – 1), then
• Require M × N measurements
19
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

19

Sheet-of-light laser source

• Projects a plane of light onto the object

• Plane intersects the object and forms a

line

• The line becomes a projection onto the

image plane of the camera.
Demonstration of how Sheet-of-light range scanner works

• A direct extension of the point laser approach (except that the line represents a
collection of simultaneous point sources)
• Allows to increase scanning speed over a point laser with almost no increase in effort.
• Sheet-of-light method requires only M measurements for an M × N image.
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 20

20

10
 8/28/2024

Coded-light source

• Uses a slide projector with patterns placed

in the slide carousel

• The system projects these patterns as

coded light onto the object

• The patterns take different forms but one

technique uses a checkerboard

Demonstration of how coded light pattern scanner works

• The range resolution of this method is a function of the number of patterns used

• An M × N image would require R measurements where R = log(M)

Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 21

21

Which technique seems better???

Coded-light patterns scanning

In practice, the mechanisms necessary to exchange and display patterns onto an

object are a bottleneck.
Then which technique –
Sheet-of-Light Method

• It can generate 10,000 data points per second

• Better number is expected with advancement of the technology
• Such speeds are beyond the capabilities of a mechanical CMM probe

Sheet-of-light scanners: offer the greatest speed advantage in collecting 3-D data
compared to other laser scanners and thus are the most suitable for CARE applications
22
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

22

11
 8/28/2024

Sheet-of-light range imaging

• Basic operation: laser projects a line onto the

object of interest

• 3-D measurements: triangulation among this

line, the laser, and a camera yield

Approaches for measurement and scanning -

• Moving object (conveyor system)

• Moving scanner (camera and laser are

mounted on a wand)
Examples of a sheet-of-light system: ranger Scanner developed by
Integrated Vision Products (IVP)
23
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

23

Sheet-of-light range imaging…

• In the conveyor system, the spacing between the profiles is simply a function of –
 Traveling speed of the conveyor and
 Acquisition rate of the scanner

• With the wand system, a more complicated tracking system is necessary to

determine the inter-profile relations.

• Commercial solutions range from magnetic position trackers to CMM probes.

• System setting for accurate scanning –

 View angle (α): 30–60° range
 Camera resolutions: order of 512 × 512 pixels or greater

24
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

24

12
 8/28/2024

View angle (α)

• If α is outside the range 30–60°: scanning
accuracy decreases

• If α = 0 °: (object surfaces are planar and

perpendicular to the laser plane)
 the camera will not see the laser
 However, this angle yields the best
projection for depth changes

• If α = 90 °: (the offset camera is almost looking straight down the laser plane)
 The camera detects the laser at the same position regardless of depth changes
 It offers the worst projection to the camera
 But, it gives the camera the best views of the laser reflection
25
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

25

Occlusion
ME F416

• A common problem with computer vision systems

‘A part of an object occludes the viewing of another part of the same object’

Spherical object

Camera Occlusion

26
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

26

13
 8/28/2024

Occlusion….
• Sheet-of-light range scanner has two possibilities for
occlusions –

• The camera may image a surface that self-occlusion

does not allow the laser to illuminate

• Conversely, the laser may illuminate a surface that

self-occlusion hides from the camera

• A variety of strategies are possible to minimize

occlusions, but we cannot eliminate the problem, as
the simple sphere example demonstrates.
27
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

27

Scanner Pipeline

Refers to the steps that are necessary for a laser range scanner –

 To capture 3-D data of a real object and

 To translate the data into a CAD description

Block diagram of a CARE system based on a laser range scanner

28
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

28

14
 8/28/2024

Data Collection
• The first step for a CARE scanner: various techniques/issues have been discussed

• Range image: a conventional digital image captured with a digital camera

• Calibration: conversion of a range image into a 3-D point cloud

Example of a range image for the brake

29
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

29

Data Collection (Calibration)

• Consider a pixel (i, j)
• The raw data from a range scanner is an image
with pixel data (r, i, j).
• Calibration determines the relationship
between (r, i, j) and some world coordinate
system (x, y, z) in units such as meters or inches.

• With calibration, we can define a transform T that converts a range image into a 3-D
point cloud –
p = (x, y, z) =T (r, i, j )
where, p is a point in the cloud.
• The point cloud is difficult to visualize on a 2-D, therefore, needs a 3-D viewer
30
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

30

15
 8/28/2024

Data Collection (Occlusion issue)

Solution: moving the scanner around the object to get multiple viewing angles

Multiple view scanning and registration

31
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

31

Data Collection (Registration)

Challenge with multiple views: registration of the subsequent coordinate systems
Registration: process of recovering the rigid transformation that relates these two
coordinate systems

How to register points –

z
• Consider a point p (x, y, z) on a surface in y
one coordinate system p
p’
• Same point is p’ (x’, y’, z’) in a second
x’
coordinate system y’
x
• Physically, p and p’ are the same point;
belong to different coordinate systems z’

32
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

32

16
 8/28/2024

Data Collection (Registration)

• The transformation between two Cartesian coordinate systems can be thought of as

the result of a rigid-body motion (Horn B, Hilden H, Negahdaripour S; 1998)

• It can be decomposed into a rotation and a translation

• The equation for transformation is –

p = R p′+ t

where the matrix R (a rotation) and the vector t (a translation) are unknown.

33
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

33

Data Collection (Registration)

How to find R and t –

Registration
algorithms

Multiple Raw Values

Object Recovery
views data of R & t

??

34
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

34

17
 8/28/2024

Data Collection (Registration)

Horn B, Hilden H, Negahdaripour S (1998)

• Presented a closed-form solution for the recovery

• One criterion is the amount of overlap among the views
• If no overlap: registration is practically impossible unless higher order constraints are
imposed.
• Some partial overlap is necessary to resolve the registration.
• In CARE, scanner using laser ranging must define the amount of overlap between
views
A point cloud

35
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

35

Mesh reconstruction

• Models the surface of the

object–to connect the dots
of the point cloud

• Triangles are a default

standard as a surface
primitive

Reconstruction recovers the triangulated surface from the 3-D point cloud data

• Triangles simplify computer visualizations (guaranteed convexity)

• Useful as a first-order approximation of an object

36
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

36

18
 8/28/2024

Mesh reconstruction (sampling)

• Sampling: is a trade-off between data set size and object coverage

• Defines the number of points in the point cloud and their relative distance to each
other (i.e., their density) on the object during reconstruction

• To capture fidelity of the object more accurately a larger data set is needed

• Under sampling: leads to incomplete and inaccurate models

• Oversampling: tends to overwhelm computing resources

• Mesh reconstruction algorithms: must define their sampling requirements, and

users must tailor their CARE applications accordingly

37
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

37

Mesh reconstruction (measurement error)

• Inherent in sampling

• A data acquisition problem

• Most mesh reconstruction algorithms minimize the effects of such error

• If we have a 3-D point p on the surface of an object, measuring that point with a
scanner inevitably introduces an error such that the observed point q has the
following relation:

q=p+e
where the vector e is the error.

38
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

38

19
 8/28/2024

Mesh reconstruction (measurement error)

• A reconstruction algorithm must consider three factors –

 Topology (global structure of the object)

 Amount of overlap (between different views of the object)

 Missing data (lead to holes in the mesh)

• Categories of mesh reconstruction algorithms to deal with these factors –

 Surface-based (Bernardini et al.; 1999) and

 Volumetric-based methods (Curless and Levoy; 1996)

39
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

39

Surface fitting

• The final stage of the pipeline is to generate higher order descriptions that are
more appropriate for CAD applications

• In some cases, a triangle mesh itself is sufficient as the final product of a CARE
scanner.

• In other cases, parametric representations such as non-uniform rational B-splines

(NURBS) are necessary.

• This stage is named as final stage (surface fitting), however, in practice, it takes
many forms and is highly dependent on the CARE application.

40
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

40

20
 8/28/2024

Surface fitting
Eck and Hoppe (1996) present a method for the recovery of splines from range scans.

• A parametric representation of a surface takes the following form –

S(u,v) = ( f (u,v), g (u,v), h(u,v))

where u and v parameterize the surface and the functions f, g, and h return the
x, y, and z coordinates, respectively.

• For most complex objects –

 a single parameterized surface is not realizable and

 not practical for the entire object

41
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

41

Surface fitting
• First task is to segment the object into appropriate patches and then parameterize
those patches individually.
• The major challenge is identifying appropriate patches, particularly, because
parameterized surfaces assume a rectangular structure.

• Rectangles do not fit the arbitrary boundaries that often occur with patch selection.
• As a result, an additional step must trim the surface to these boundaries.

• With a patch identified, the fitting for recovering the parameters for f, g, and h is
straightforward.
• Both direct and iterative optimization solutions are common.

42
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

42

21
 8/28/2024

Surface fitting
First image: feature detection to establish potential surface discontinuities
Second image: control grid to support the surface fitting process
Third image: result of fitting a higher order surface to the measurement data.

Patches boundaries:
feature detection of Fitting: NURBS to
surface discontinuities the resulting patches

Typical surface fitting sequence

43
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

43

Thank you

44

44

22
 9/10/2024

Hardware and Software for RE

Radha Raman Mishra, Ph. D.

Course Instructor & Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering

This chapter ME F416

Reverse Engineering

Hardware Software
(Data acquisition ) (3D geometric model)

Contact Non-contact Destructive Polygons NURBS

(non-uniform rational B-splines)

Formats: STL, VRML, or DXF Formats: surfaces or solid

Uses: Rapid prototyping, laser milling, 3-D Uses: CAD, CAM, CAE
graphics, simulation, and animations applications

1
 9/10/2024

Hardware for RE
ME F416

Point-to-Point sensing Analogue sensing

Contact
• Touch-trigger probes • Scanning probes
Methods • CMM
• CMM or
• Articulated mechanical arm • CNC

Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 3

Point-to-point sensing
ME F416

Articulated mechanical arm:

• Manually operated,
• Allows multiple degrees of
freedom (DOF)

Articulated arms (a) MicroScribe MX and (b) Faro arm–Platinum

CMM:
• Can be programmed to follow planned paths along
a surface
• More accurate measurement of data
CMM
• Limited number of DOF
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 4

2
 9/10/2024

Analog sensing
ME F416

• Working: The probe stylus tip contacts the feature and then moves continuously
along the surface

• Output: continuous deflection which is

combined with the machine position

• Precautions: keep the deflection of the

probe stylus within the measurement
range

• Advantage: three times faster scanning

speed
(a) SP25M scanning probes . (b) Roland DGA
Corp. MDX-15/20 scanning and milling machine

Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 5

Typical RE hardware for commercial uses

ME F416

Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 6

3
 9/10/2024

Advantages and limitations

ME F416

Advantages:
• High accuracy,
• Low costs
• Ability to measure deep slots and pockets, and
• Insensitivity to color or transparency

Disadvantages:
• Slow data collection and
• Distortion of soft objects by the probe

Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 7

Noncontact methods
ME F416

• 2-D cross-sectional images and point clouds are captured

• Uses energy sources
 light,
 sound, or
 magnetic fields
• Either the transmitted or the reflected energy is observed
• The geometric data for an object are finally calculated by
 Triangulation
 Time-of-flight
 Wave-interference information, and
 image processing algorithms
• No contact between the RE hardware and the object

Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 8

4
 9/10/2024

Noncontact methods: classification

ME F416

Based on –
• Sensor technologies (Tamas et al. 2005) or
• Data acquisition techniques (Alain 1999; Rocchini et al. 2001)

Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 9

Advantages and limitations

ME F416
Advantages:
• No physical contact
• Fast digitizing of substantial volumes
• Good accuracy and resolution for common applications
• Ability to detect colors, and
• Ability to scan highly detailed objects, where mechanical touch probes may be
too large to accomplish the task.

Disadvantages:
• Possible limitations for colored, transparent, or reflective surfaces, and
• Lower accuracy

For typical commercial RE hardware using noncontact methods for data acquisition: ‘Table 3.2’ pages 48-52

Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 10

10

5
 9/10/2024

Optical techniques
ME F416

Triangulation: CCD–charge-coupled device camera

• Used by most laser scanners

• Triangulation: employs
locations and angles
between light sources and
photosensitive

• Variants of triangulation
schemes (CCD camera):
a) Single and
b) Double (a moving light spot
or line, moving stripe patterns,
or a static arbitrary pattern
(Böhler et al. 2001).
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 11

11

Optical techniques ME F416

Triangulation Principle:
• L: baseline length between the light source and the
camera (known from calibration)
• θ: projection angle
• F: focal length of the camera
• Position of the illuminated point (Pi) with respect to the
camera coordinate system (Park and DeSouza 2005):

Measurement errors:

ΔZ α Z2 , (1/F) and (1/L)

Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 12

12

6
 9/10/2024

Optical techniques ME F416

Triangulation Principle:
• Increase in the L baseline length results in higher accuracy in the measurement.

• Practically, L is fixed depending upon the hardware structure of the scanners.

• Triangulation scanners are suitable for scanning small objects over short
distances.

• Triangulation scanners are supplied both as –

 complete systems and
 self-contained scanning heads for mounting (AM arms or CMMs)

Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 13

13

Optical techniques ME F416

Structured light:
• A light pattern can be:
 a single point
 a sheet of light (line)
 a strip, grid, or more
complex coded light
• The most commonly used
pattern is a sheet of light

Advantages over laser systems:

• Data acquisition is very fast
• Color texture information is
Different light patterns used in structured-light techniques
available
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 14

14

7
 9/10/2024

Optical techniques ME F416

Structured light:

Different light patterns used in structured-light techniques

Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 15

15

Optical techniques ME F416

Structured light:

Different light patterns used in structured-light techniques

Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008. 16

16

8
 9/10/2024

Optical techniques ME F416

Interferometry (Moiré Effects):

• Well known in dimensional inspection, flatness and deformation measurements
• shadow moiré effects are produced

Formation of moiré fringes

17
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

17

Optical techniques ME F416

Interferometry (Moiré Effects):

Formation of moiré fringes

18
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

18

9
 9/10/2024

Optical techniques ME F416

• The light contours produced by moiré effects are captured in an image

• Image is analyzed to determine distances between the lines.

.
• This distance is proportional to the height of the surface at the point of interest,
and so the surface coordinates can be calculated.

Advantage & limitation:

• Accurate results for 3-D reconstruction and measurement of small objects and
surfaces.

• Limited use for larger objects because precision is sacrificed for range.

19
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

19

Optical techniques ME F416

Time of Flight:
• Measures the amount of time
(t) that a light pulse takes to
travel to the object and return

• Distance (D) of the object from

the laser = C × t/2 , C is speed
of light
Principle of TOF scanners

• the angle θ is very small and thus has no effect on the accuracy

• The accuracy depends on – pulse width of the laser, speed of the detector, and the
timing resolution

• Shorter the pulse and the faster the detector, the higher the accuracy
20
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

20

10
 9/10/2024

Optical techniques ME F416

Time of Flight:
Advantages
• Rapid measurements (hundreds, or even thousands per second)
• Large and distant objects (buildings and bridges) can be digitized
• Reasonable accuracy (approximately between a few mm and 2-3 cm)

Disadvantage
• TOF scanners are large
• Unable to capture an object’s texture, only its geometry
• Impractical for fast digitization of small and medium-sized objects
• Takes time to complete the digitization process
Similar method is the phase shift method
21
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

21

Optical techniques ME F416

Phase shift method:

• Distance is computed by comparing the phase shift between an emitted
wavelength and the received light.

• The accuracy of a phase-shift system is higher than that of traditional TOF

machines.

• An important consequence of using phase-shift detection is that the system uses a

single line of sight for its work.

• This means that the laser light travels the same path from the scanner to the
surface and back again which enables scanning the inside of holes, cavities, and
concave surfaces.
22
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

22

11
 9/10/2024

Optical techniques ME F416

Passive Methods:
• No projection of light sources onto the object for data acquisition

• Typical methods are –

 Shape from shading
 Shape from stereo

• The shadow areas of an object cannot be recovered reliably because they do not
provide enough intensity information

• The method cannot be applied to general objects because it assumes that the
entire surface of an object has the same reflectance;

• The method is very sensitive to noise because the computation of surface

gradients is involved.
23
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

23

Optical techniques ME F416

Passive Methods:
• No Comparison to SFS methods, there is improved accuracy.

• However, finding correspondence between images is extremely difficult and can

produce erroneous results from mismatches.

• Although they require very simple hardware, passive methods do not produce
accurate 3-D data.

• Active optical methods can overcome many of the problems in passive methods
and thus result in more accurate solutions.

24
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

24

12
 9/10/2024

Optical techniques ME F416

Coherent Laser Radar:

• Based on principles of frequency-modulated coherent laser radar (FMCLR)
• Measures large-scale geometry precisely
• A sensor to direct a focused invisible infrared laser beam to a point and coherently
processes the reflected light.
• As the laser light travels to and from the target, it also travels through a reference
path of calibrated optical fiber in an environmentally controlled module.
• The two paths are combined to determine the absolute range to the point.
• A very wide laser-modulation bandwidth (100 GHz) makes precise measurement
possible on a millisecond timescale.
• The distance measurement is then combined with positional information from two
precision encoders to determine a point on a surface in space.
25
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

25

Non-contact and non-optical techniques

26

13
 9/10/2024

Acoustic and Radar systems ME F416

• Include acoustic (active sonar) and microwave radar (radio detecting and ranging)

• Principle: measures distances from the sensing device to objects by measuring the
time delay between the transmitted and returned signals.

• Sonar techniques are normally used in 3-D underwater mapping; they provide
mariners with a major advancement in obstacle avoidance and navigation.

• Sonar range sensors are inexpensive, but their accuracy is not high and they do not
have high acquisition speeds.

27
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

27

Non-contact and non-optical techniques ME F416

• Acoustic interference or noise is often a problem, as is determining the focused

point location.

• Radar is typically intended for use with long-range remote sensing, especially in
airline applications.

• Commercial airliners are equipped with radar devices that warn of obstacles in or
approaching their path and give accurate altitude readings.

• In 3-D reconstruction applications, radar is used to measure distances and map

geographic areas and to navigate and fix positions at sea.

28
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

28

14
 9/10/2024

Transitive techniques
ME F416

Computerized tomography (CT)

• Powerful transmissive approach for 3-D reconstruction

• Nondestructive method that allows three-dimensional visualization of the internals

of an object

• Revolutionized the medical diagnostic field since the 1970s

• Also called as computerized axial tomography (CAT), computerized trans axial

tomography (CTAT), and digital axial tomography (DAT).

• It provides a large series of 2-D X-ray cross-sectional images taken around a single
rotational axis.

29
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

29

Transitive techniques ME F416

Principle of CT
• A thin beam of X-rays
is projected through
one plane of an
object from many
different angles

• Transmitted radiation
is measured along
various lines of sight
Working principle of the CT scanner

• A map of attenuation coefficients (a density map or cross-sectional image) for the

scanned surface is reconstructed
30
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

30

15
 9/10/2024

Transitive techniques ME F416

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

• Uses magnetic fields and radio waves

• Principle: When hydrogen protons in the human body are placed in a strong
magnetic field, by sending in (and stopping) electromagnetic radio-frequency
pulses, these protons emit signals.

• The signals are collected and processed to construct cross-sectional images.

• Creates high-quality cross-sectional images

• Free from radiation

31
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

31

Transitive techniques ME F416

Advantage

• Compared to CT, MRI gives superior quality images of soft tissues such as organs,
muscle, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons in many parts of the body.

• CT and MRI are powerful techniques for medical imaging and reverse engineering
applications

Disadvantage

• The most expensive in terms of both hardware and software for data processing.

32
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

32

16
 9/10/2024

Destructive Method ME F416

• Useful for reverse engineering small and

complex objects in which both internal and
external features are scanned.

• A CNC milling machine exposes 2-D cross-

sectional (slice) images, which are then
gathered by a CCD camera.

• The scanning software automatically converts

the digital bitmap image to edge detected
points, as the part is scanned.

• In RP processes, the part is built layer-by- A procedure for data acquisition in a destructive RE system
layer based on 2-D slice data. The destructive
RE process is the reverse of this.
33
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

33

Destructive Method ME F416

• To remodel the part, 2-D slice images of the part are gathered by destroying the part
layer-by-layer.

• Disadvantage - destruction of the object; however, the technique is fast.

• The accuracy is acceptable.

• Repeatability is ±0.0127 mm (CGI systems).

• The layer thickness is from 0.0127–0.254 mm.

• The method allows capturing internal structures.

• In addition, a destructive system can work with any machinable object, including parts
made from aluminum alloys, plastics, steel, cast iron, stainless steel, copper, and
wood. 34
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

34

17
 9/10/2024

Software for Reverse Engineering

35

Reverse Engineering Software Classification

Software for RE ME F416

• No single package (RE data processing and geometric modeling)

• Selection: specific requirements of RE projects

• Classification software needed for RE –

 Hardware control
 CAD entity manipulation
 Polygon manipulation
 Polygon and NURBS surface construction
 2-D Scan Image Processing and 3-D modeling
 3-D Inspection
 NURBS surface and solid modeling

36
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

36

18
 9/10/2024

Software Classification ME F416

37
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

37

Software Classification
ME F416

38
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

38

19
 9/10/2024

Different Software Phases

in RE ME F416

• Main phases:
 points and images phase
 Polygon phase
 Curves phase, and
 NURBS surfaces phase

39
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

39

3D Data Registration
ME F416

[Link] 40

40

20
 9/10/2024

Software for RE
ME F416
Points and Images Phase

• Output of RE data from

acquisition systems –
 Point cloud
 2-D Images

• A flowchart for transforming RE

scan data into 3-D triangle mesh
models -

. (a) Point cloud data as the input. (b) 2-D scan images as the input.
41
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

41

Software for RE ME F416

• Segmentation: 2-D cross-

sectional images; gray-level
value of image pixels

• Thresholding techniques: can be

used to define a region of
interest that presents the object
for 3-D reconstruction

• Region growing technique:

provides the capacity to split the
segmentation into separate
objects (a) A skull defined by the thresholding technique. (b, c) 3-D models of the cranial defect
skull (b), and other anatomical structures of the head (c).
42
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

42

21
 9/10/2024

Software for RE
ME F416

Polygon Phase

• Based on the application requirements –

 Models construction
 Manipulation
 Control

• 3-D polygon models are used in –

 Applications: rapid prototyping, 3-D graphics and animations
 Reference data: CAD entities (points, curves, and primitives) and NURBS
surfaces

43
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

43

Software for RE
ME F416

Curve Phase
• CAD entities: point clouds or polygon models

• Operations: manual editing, fitting, and sectioning operations

• Entities are reference data for geometric modeling

• Imported into CAD packages to complete the geometric modeling

44
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

44

22
 9/10/2024

Software for RE
ME F416

Curve Phase
• Simple geometries: limited
reference points, CAD
package and contact
methods for collection of
data

• Curves: necessary for

complex parts with free-form
surfaces; more point data are
needed and noncontact
methods for data acquisition
(a) An RE model of a mechanical part with simple geometries (KUKA robot). (b) An RE
model of a complex part with free-form surfaces.

45
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

45

Software for RE ME F416

NURBS Surface Phase

Non-uniform rational basis spline (NURBS)
• Constructed based on the CAD
entities

• Extracted from the curve phase

or by using polygon meshes for
surface fitting

• NURBS are an accurate way to

define free-form curves and
surfaces

Different RE approaches for NURBS construction

46
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

46

23
 9/10/2024

Software for RE ME F416

NURBS are useful for the following reasons:

• One common mathematical form for shapes (standard and free-form)

• Flexibility to design a large variety of shapes

• Less memory consumption

• Reasonably fast evaluation by numerically stable and accurate algorithms

• Invariant under affine as well as perspective transformations

• Generalizations of non-rational B-splines and non-rational and rational Bézier

curves and surfaces

47
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

47

Software for RE ME F416

There are three approaches for creating NURBS surfaces:

• Manual creation of NURBS from basic CAD entities
 Same as CAD approach
 Difference: RE is based on scanned data

• Manual creation of NURBS from patches

• Automatic creation of NURBS from polygon models

 Automatic generation of NURBS using software packages
 Suited for simple objects and specific applications

Finally, constructed NURBS surfaces can be imported into CAD/CAM systems to build
NURB CAD solid models.
48
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

48

24
 9/10/2024

Software for RE ME F416

Manual creation of NURBS from patches

• Approach: the model is fitted with a patch structure of quadrangular shapes from
which NURBS patches are constructed

• Patch: four polylines traced on the polygonal surface

(a) An infant’s head model with a NURBS patch layout. (b) NURBS patches with UV grids of control points. (c) A NURBS solid model of the head.
49
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

49

Software for RE
ME F416
Manual creation of NURBS from patches
• The quality of the NURBS surfaces depends on –
 Layout of the patches (Optimum: generating good grids)

 Number of control points for defining a NURBS patch surface

(higher the number of control points; higher accuracy is achieved)

• The most efficient NURBS surface

fitting approach, especially for
complex shapes
• Verification of result: (The error map)
between a resulting NURBS model
with an original scan point cloud (or a
An error map (a) between an original polygon football model and (b) a
polygon mesh) resulting NURBS model.
50
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

50

25
 9/10/2024

Fundamental Reverse Engineering Operations ME F416

1. Points and Images Phase

• Data registration

• Data Optimization
 Noise and Point
Redundancy Reduction
 Sampling Points
 Identifying Primitives
Sampling Points
51
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

51

Fundamental Reverse Engineering Operations ME F416

2. Polygon Phase
• Optimizing Polygon Models
 Noise Reduction and
Cleaning
 Abnormal Face Cleaning
 Nonmanifold faces
 Redundant faces
 Crossing faces
 Polygon Mesh Refinement
and Decimation

52
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

52

26
 9/10/2024

Fundamental Reverse Engineering Operations ME F416

2. Polygon Phase Filling Holes

• Editing and Controlling Polygon

Models
 Filling Holes
Remeshing
 Defeaturing
 Edge Detection and Sharpening
Control
 Primitives Fitting
 Polygon Editing and Remeshing Editing

 Boundary Control and Editing

 Basic Polygon Operations
53
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

53

Fundamental Reverse Engineering Operations ME F416

3. Curve Phase
• Curve Re-parameterization
• Curve Degree Conversion
• Curve Smoothing and Cleaning
• Control Point Editing
• Point Generation
• Curve Redirection, Transition,
and Extension

54
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

54

27
 9/10/2024

Fundamental Reverse Engineering Operations ME F416

4. NURBS Surface Phase

• Preparation of CAD model
• Patch generation
• Surface generation

(a) Boundary curves define the

components of the model.
(b) Boundary curves designate
panels of rectangular patches.
(c) The UV meshes of control points
define the NURBS patches of the
component.

55
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

55

Thank you

56

56

28
 9/12/2024

ME F416

Selection of a RE System

Radha Raman Mishra, Ph. D.

Course Instructor & Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering

This chapter ME F416

System
Selection ??
Methods and Techniques

Reverse
Fundamentals Software
Engineering

Hardware

1
 9/12/2024

Need of selecting a RE system ME F416

RE applications range from: A generic selection approach that is

• Medicine equally applicable to all of the
• Cinematography Applications: inevitably doomed to
failure.
• Civil Engineering
• Archaeology
Customization and adoption is
• Animation
needed
• Aviation
• Architecture
• Mechanical Engineering ……….so on Our focus will be primarily on:
Mechanical Engineering Domain

3
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

Aim and assumptions

ME F416

The aim of any selection process is:

• To reach a purchasing decision that satisfies as many of the stakeholder
requirements as possible, as quickly as possible

Assumptions for present discussions:

• A team approach will be used
• Purchase price is sufficient to justify a thorough selection process
• Shortcuts for less expensive systems will be readily apparent

Selection teams : A single person working part-time to a large multi-person teams with
at least a core team working full-time

4
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

2
 9/12/2024

The selection process ME F416

Comprises two components –

• A technical evaluation
(the most appropriate hardware or software from a technical perspective)

• A commercial evaluation
(the vendor chosen has the right attributes in financial stability, reputation, local
support outlets, and so on)

5
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

The selection process ME F416

Team Identify the Business Technical

Formation Opportunity Requirements

Visit the Short- Vendor Vendor and System

listed Vendors Short-listing Information Gathering

Detailed Vendor Commercial Evaluation

Benchmarking
Assessment of the Vendor Chosen

6
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

3
 9/12/2024

Team formation ME F416

A member of senior management, initiates the formation of a team tasked with

selecting the system –

• Consultants: able to match requirements rapidly with appropriate solutions

• However, many companies will opt for an internal selection team

• Typically, a team consists of –

 An “inner team” (one or two people who are involved in the selection project
on a full-time basis)

 An “outer team” (people who will typically be representatives from the

various stakeholder groups)

7
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

Identify the Business Opportunity and Technical Requirements

ME F416

The major tasks are –

• To develop a business case document that outlines the business opportunity to
be addressed

• The major technical requirements of the system

• The likely revenues or cost savings from the system over time

For example –
• Accuracy of the scanning system: qualitatively vs quantitatively
• A benchmark test, or some other approach?
• Scanning speed more important than accuracy or vice versa?
8
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

4
 9/12/2024

Vendor and System Information Gathering ME F416

Provides the basis for –

• Initial triage of possible systems from inappropriate systems

• Inform the development of the requirements document

Strategies –

• Initially, vendors may be contacted to get the relevant information

• easiest way to get a broad view of the system marketplace is by searching on the
Internet

9
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

Vendor Short-listing ME F416

Requires a process based on fairly rapid evaluation of each vendor –

• Based around a decision tree of key questions

• Rapid exclusion of some vendors

• Scanner or Digitizer, software may be considered

10
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

10

5
 9/12/2024

Visit the Short-listed Vendors ME F416

Different possibilities are –

• A version of the requirements document can be sent to each supplier

• Request that they confirm their ability to meet each requirement

• Visit the vendor for a demonstration or

• To ask a salesperson to visit the customer

11
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

11

Detailed Vendor Assessment ME F416

• Prepared a matrix of desired system attributes and their overall importance.

• Rank them on a scale from 1–5 (1- poor and 5-best)

12
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

12

6
 9/12/2024

Benchmarking ME F416

• The successful two or three vendors should be asked to prepare a

benchmark test

• Let vendor perform the required operations

• Team should visit to benchmark the vendor

• Go back to the matrix of vendor capability attributes and decide

whether any scores need to change

• Finalize the First and runner up vendors

13
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

13

Perform a Commercial Evaluation of the Vendor Chosen ME F416

• To review with management and the project champion the outcome of the
process,

• If approved, to enter into negotiations with the supplier

• To ensure that the proposed vendor is sufficiently financially stable and well
established to meet its contractual commitments in terms of –
 Delivery,
 Warranty,
 After-sales service and support,
 Possible midlife upgrades to hardware and software, and so on

14
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

14

7
 9/12/2024

Some Additional Complexities ME F416

System becomes complex when there are different vendors for different components –

• Selection of Hardware

• Selection of Software

• Selection of Vendor

• Interface between different vendor’s components

15
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

15

A taxonomy of measuring systems

ME F416

16
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

16

8
 9/12/2024

A taxonomy of positioning devices

ME F416

17
Vinesh Raja and Kiran J Fernandes, “Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective”, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing, Springer-Verlag London Limited, UK, 2008.

17

Thank you

18

18

9
 10/7/2024

Numerical Problems

Q1. In an articulated mechanical arm, the outer diameter

of the shaft used is 25 mm. Calculate the force acting on
the shaft and the power of the motor (in kW) if the density
of nylon = 1100 kg/m3, the length of the shaft from the
motor is 4 m, and the speed of the motor is 10 RPM.
(k can be considered 0.75).

1
 10/7/2024

Q2. In a robot, the maximum bending moment in an

articulated arm made from plain carbon steel ( = 560
/ is 7288.743 N. An ideal condition is assumed,
taking torque to be zero. If shock and fatigue factor for
bending = 1.6 and Shock and fatigue factor for twisting
=1.2, calculate diameter of shaft. Factor of safety can be
taken as 1.5. Round off your answer to the nearest integer.

Q3. A 2D coordinate measuring machine is shown below (the

real 3D machine is pictured to the right). If the transducers in
the joints read =30°& =45°, what is the coordinate of
contact point B, for OA= 0.3 m and AB= 0.25 m?

2
 10/7/2024

Q4. A cantilever type of Coordinate Measuring Machine

(CMM) was designed to have a measurement range of 500
mm along its horizontal beam. The experiment indicated that
when the z spindle moved to the end of the beam, a
deflection of 0.040 mm occurred. A 450 mm length bar was
measured on this CMM, positioned parallel to the beam and
380 mm below the measuring scale. Estimate the Abbe error
in the measurement.

Q5. Three-point locations on the surface of a cylinder have

been measured by a coordinate measuring machine. The
cylinder is positioned so that its axis is perpendicular to
the x−y plane. The three coordinates in the x-y axes are:
(5.242,0.124),(0.325,4.811), and (−4.073,−0.544), where
the units are in mm. The coordinates have been corrected
for probe radius. Determine (a) the coordinates of the
cylinder axis and (b) the cylinder radius, as they would be
computed by the CMM software.

3
 10/7/2024

Q6. A simple, single-point source laser scanning system is shown in figure.

The diameter and focal length of the spherical convex scanning lens are D
and f, respectively. The angle of incidence between the incident beam and
the normal of the rotatable mirror is denoted as θ. The horizontal distance
measured from the center of the lens is denoted as x
(a) What is the maximum length of the sample that can be scanned?
(b) Express x as a function of θ and f

Q7. A sheet-of-light laser light source with

unknown wavelength shines on a single slit of
width 0.20 mm, the screen is located 2.0 m
away from the slit and the light pattern
measurement shows the width of the central
bright fringe is 6.8 mm. Determine the
unknown wavelength of the laser light.

4
 10/7/2024

Q8. In the laser scanning process using triangulation techniques to find the
coded light projections and depth of the objects being scanned, the distance
between the camera and the reference surface X and the focal length are
calculated by camera calibration. For the given parameters, find the angle in
which the laser emitter should be put to meet with the specifications: X= 50
mm, d=0.1 mm f=2 mm, H = 3 mm

5
 11/11/2024

Rapid Prototyping

Prototyping

• Prototyping is a quick way to incorporate direct feedback from

(real) users into a design.

• Purpose –
 how it will look,
 how it will feel,
 how it will function,
 where to get it made, and
 how to make sure it will turn out the way one wants it.

• Sometime, very time- and cost-consuming process

• Must be a well-thought-out plan

1
 11/11/2024

Commonly seen mistakes

• A common mistake is beginning a product development
project by constructing a full model of the final product
• Commitment too early to a particular design
• Gaining a false view of how long the system will take to
complete based on the time taken to prototype
• Too many design iterations that could lead to maintenance
and/or operational problems associated with previous
versions
• The performance characteristics of prototypes misled the
customer; and
• Utilizing materials or methods that do not reflect the final
design, leading to erroneous performance data.

Commonly seen mistakes

2
 11/11/2024

Prototype classifications

Prototype of choice

• Analytical prototypes are generally more flexible than physical prototypes

• Analytical prototypes can be used to narrow the range of feasible parameters
• Physical prototypes can be used to fine-tune or confirm the design
• Physical prototypes are required to detect unanticipated phenomena
• Analytical models can seldom reveal phenomena that are not part of the underlying
analytical model
• A physical prototype often exhibits unanticipated phenomena completely unrelated to
the original objective of the prototype, for example, thermal, optical, electrical–
mechanical coupling, etc.
• A prototype may reduce the risk of costly iterations
• Anticipated benefits of a prototype may be weighted against time and money
• A prototype may expedite other development steps
• A prototype may restructure task dependencies

3
 11/11/2024

Considerations
Before constructing a physical prototype, the following items
are kept in mind:

• Purpose

• Development time of prototype

• Possible forms

• Types of tests to perform

• Risk of constructing prototype or continuing without it

Before

Plan for Prototyping

• Step 1: Define the purpose of the prototype

• Step 2: Establish the level of approximation of the prototype

• Step 3: Outline an experimental plan

• Step 4: Create a schedule for procurement, construction, and

testing

• Step 5: Perform more detailed prototype planning that will

involve extensive time and cost

4
 11/11/2024

Considerations
Before constructing a physical prototype, the following items
are kept in mind:

• Purpose

• Development time of prototype

• Possible forms

• Types of tests to perform

• Risk of constructing prototype or continuing without it

Before

PHYSICAL PROTOTYPE DESIGN PROCEDURE

• Task 1: Prototype Conceptual Design

• Task 2: Configuration Design of Prototype Parts and

Components

• Task 3: Parametric Design

• Task 4: Detailed Design

10

5
 11/11/2024

PROTOTYPE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

Planning
• Communication

• Mentoring

• Brainstorming

• Resource allocation

• Tracking and measurement, and

• A good project manager

11

PROTOTYPE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

• Secret to getting started on a prototype project is breaking
the complex overwhelming tasks into small manageable
tasks and

• Starting on the first one.

• Plan the tasks according to project objectives.

Project planning triangles

12

6
 11/11/2024

PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

• Decision tree for risk management

• helps to make decisions in succession into the future

Squares represent decisions circles represent uncertain outcomes

13

PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

• To evaluate the decision tree, start by assigning a cash value or
score to each possible outcome.
• Estimate how much it would be worth if that outcome came
about.
• The expected cash values (or scores) should be evaluated based
on the prototyping objectives.
• Take a look at each circle (representing an uncertainty point)
and estimate the probability of each outcome.
• If percentages are used, the total must total 100% at each circle.
• If fractions are used, these must add up to 1.
• If one has data on past events, one may be able to make
rigorous estimates of the probabilities. Otherwise write down
the best guess.

14

7
 11/11/2024

PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

• Since the FDM process can end up with

the largest cash value,
Value for the physical prototype, in FDM process is – • It should be chosen as the process for
this case
• 0.8 (probability good outcome)* $5000 (value) = $4000 • Therefore, the recommended
• 0.1 (probability moderate outcome)*$2000 (value)= $200 prototyping method should be physical
• 0.1 (probability poor outcome)*0 (value)= $0 prototype— FDM process.
• The total expected value = $4200 - $1000 (FDM process cost) =
$3200

15

COST ESTIMATION FOR PROTOTYPE

• When designing a product or a prototype, it is very critical
for a design engineer to learn about the cost factors—all
costs that can contribute to the final cost of the project.

• Many opportunities for product cost optimization are

embedded in the process of defining the project.

• Often it is too late to make a change in the later part of the

product development stage.

• A cost estimate establishes the base line of the project cost

at different stages of development of the project.

16

8
 11/11/2024

COST ESTIMATION FOR PROTOTYPE

A good cost-estimate procedure includes –

• Uses best available data

• Adjusts data for definitions, accounting changes, time, unit

number of production

• Applies appropriate estimating techniques

• Addresses risk and uncertainty and

• Well documented

17

COST ESTIMATION FOR PROTOTYPE

Activity-based costing classifies costs into four categories:

• Unit level—activities performed for each unit

• Batch level—activities performed for a group of product

units, such as batch or a delivery load

• Product level—activities performed for specific products or

product families

• Facility level—costs incurred to support the whole business.

18

9
 11/11/2024

COST ESTIMATION FOR PROTOTYPE

• There is no simple way to estimate project costs, and each
method has strengths and weaknesses.

• Estimation should be based on several methods.

• If they do not return approximately the same result, some

action should be taken to find out more in order to make
more accurate estimates.

• There are several cost estimation methods

19

COST ESTIMATION FOR PROTOTYPE

• Estimation by analogy

• Bottom–up estimation

• Top–down estimation

• Expert judgment

• Pricing to win

• Estimating models

20

10
 11/11/2024

COST ESTIMATION FOR PROTOTYPE

Estimating models
• The cost equation for a particular device can be expressed as
below if it uses three parameters: number of component A,
number of component B, and time allowed for completion.

Where, n number of A components, m number of B components and t ime allowed

for completion in months.

The equation was devised as follows: The cost of component A is assumed to be

$500, and the cost of component B is assumed to be $800. The factor of 1.5 is to
allow for assembly/ welding since the amount of assembly/welding should be
proportional to the number of parts involved. The factor of 6 is to normalise the
typical amount of time required to complete one of these machines, 6 months.

21

PROTOTYPE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

• High–low method
A regression equation is derived by
getting the two extreme limits of the
observations in the graph between a
dependent variable (total cost) and an
independent variable (activity measures).

• Graphical or scatter-graph method

• Inspection of accounts method
Looks at historical data and classifies
all expenses as fixed, variable, or
semi-variable.

22

11
 11/11/2024

AN ESTIMATING MODEL FOR PROTOTYPING

23

PROTOTYPING COST BREAKDOWNS

24

12
 11/11/2024

PROTOTYPING AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES

For quick prototyping purposes, there are several materials
available –
• Modelling clay

• Machining wax

• Foam board

• Foam core

• Rubber, elastomer

• Cardboard, paper, cloth

25

APPLICATION ISSUES IN SELECTING MATERIALS

• Force and load magnitude

• Creep (slow continuous deformation)
• Input loads
• Cyclic loads and fatigue
• Deformation
• In-service temperature
• Exposure to UV light (sunlight)
• Exposure to moisture
• Weather

26

13
 11/11/2024

MATERIAL SELECTION PROCESSES FOR HIGH-FIDELITY PROTOTYPES

Material selection procedure: Material selection procedure:
material-first process-first

27

RAPID PROTOTYPING PROCESSES

• Rapid prototyping (RP) is a freeform manufacturing process

that allows users to fabricate a real physical part directly
from a CAD (computer-aided design) model.

• The CAD model is sliced into many layers by any number of

software packages that can also prepare the part for
whichever layered manufacturing machine is to be used.

• The part is then built layer by-layer without extraneous

tools. This process allows us to quickly build geometrically
complex parts.

28

14
 11/11/2024

RAPID PROTOTYPING PROCESSES: Broad Classification

•10.5937/fmet2001246Z

29

RAPID PROTOTYPING PROCESSES: Subtractive Technology

30

15
 11/11/2024

RAPID PROTOTYPING PROCESSES: Formative Technology

31

RAPID PROTOTYPING PROCESSES: Additive Technology

32

16
 11/11/2024

RAPID PROTOTYPING PROCESSES: Process chain

33

Classification of AM Processes
Classification as per the ASTM – Vat photopolymerization

• Machine architecture and Powder bed fusion

AM Processes

• Materials transformation physics Material extrusion

Terminologies instead of using – Material jetting

• 1D Channel – point
Binder jetting
• 2X1D channel – point-wise
• Arrays of 1D channels – line
Sheet lamination
processing
• 2D Channel – layer Directed energy deposition
• Holographic-like techniques
– volume processing
34
Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

34

17
 11/11/2024

Vat Photopolymerization Process

An additive manufacturing process in which liquid photopolymer in a vat is selectively

cured by light activated polymerization

35

35

Powder bed fusion

An additive manufacturing process in which thermal energy selectively fuses regions
of a powder bed.
• Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
• Selective Laser Melting
(SLM)/ Direct Metal
• Laser Sintering (DMLS)
• Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
• Multi Jet Fusion (MJF)

36

36

18
 11/11/2024

Material extrusion - FDM

An additive manufacturing process in which material is selectively dispensed through a
nozzle or orifice.

37

37

Material jetting
An additive manufacturing process in which droplets of build material are selectively
deposited

38

38

19
 11/11/2024

Binder jetting
An additive manufacturing process in which a liquid bonding agent is selectively
deposited to join powder materials.

39

39

Sheet lamination
An additive manufacturing process in which sheets of material are bonded to form an
object.

40

40

20
 11/11/2024

Directed energy deposition

An additive manufacturing process in which focused thermal energy is used to fuse
materials by melting as they are being deposited.

41

41

Thank You !

42

21
 11/11/2024

Reverse Engineering and Rapid Prototyping

(Integration of techniques)

Integrating RE and RP
• Need: can facilitate the process of new product
development
• Process focus:
RE – extracting the design data
RP – verifying or evaluating the design

• Use of CAD model:

RE – 3D CAD models are created from physical parts
RP – 3D CAD models are utilized to make physical
parts

• Ideal combination: as one helps in the design

phase and the other in the prototyping phase

• The modes of interface can be critical in terms of

efficiency
2
Lee, K. H., & Woo, H. (2000). Direct integration of reverse engineering and rapid prototyping. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 38(1), 21-38.

1
 11/11/2024

Interfacing modes between RE and RP

3
Lee, K. H., & Woo, H. (2000). Direct integration of reverse engineering and rapid prototyping. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 38(1), 21-38.

Problems of existing approaches

• Process can be carried out

using the existing programs
• Task of creating surfaces is
difficult and time-
consuming • Reduces a step
• Involves tedious manual
• Well accepted operation
• Includes unsorted and
unrelated triangles and
does not retain any surface
• Less time consuming
or feature data
• number of point clouds
• Error caused by
needs to be reduced
approximating the model
• Increases computing load
using planar triangular
patches
• Computing time increases
with smaller triangles
4
Lee, K. H., & Woo, H. (2000). Direct integration of reverse engineering and rapid prototyping. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 38(1), 21-38.

2
 11/11/2024

Legal Aspects in Reverse Engineering

Legal aspects

• Contractual restraints
 Restriction to disclose information to third parties
 Confidentiality clauses / proprietary data clauses / right of use clauses

• Trade secrets
 Information concerning the business or industrial relations of a company
 Company keeps it secret and the revelation causes a damage from a
competition point of view in –
o Manufacturing process
o Method of treating or preserving materials
o Pattern for a device

3
 11/11/2024

Legal aspects

• Patents
 Valid for 20 years
 Both components and processes may be protected
 A new patent cannot hinder anyone to copy an old technology
 It can protect an improvement on the old technology
 The patent holder may grant a license
 A criminal offence to infringe in a patent

• Design rights and Copyright

 Design rights and copyrights may exist for a product
 Such rights should be possible to work around, using a different design
 Otherwise, agreement with the rights holder

Barriers to Reverse Engineering

4
 11/11/2024

Barriers to RE

• Any thing that impedes RE

• Barriers in the reverse engineering

process can be classified as –

1. Technical complexity of the product

or feature

2. Availability of the necessary

resources

3. Skill of the reverse engineering team

9
Curtis, S. K. et al. (2011). The fundamentals of barriers to reverse engineering and their implementation into mechanical components. Research in Engineering Design, 22(4), 245-261.

1. Technical Complexity of the Product

• The technical complexity of a product or feature is an internal barrier to reverse
engineering—the original designer has a direct influence over the magnitude of this
barrier.
Stickiness is a measure of the rate at which usable information may be
extracted from a product while reverse engineering

• When sticky information interacts with other sticky information in a product, the
result is a powerful barrier to reverse engineering.

• The stickiness of pertinent information can be increased by reducing its accessibility

or including more superfluous information in the product to disguise pertinent
features.

10
Curtis, S. K. et al. (2011). The fundamentals of barriers to reverse engineering and their implementation into mechanical components. Research in Engineering Design, 22(4), 245-261.

10

5
 11/11/2024

2. Availability of the necessary resources

• The availability of the necessary resources is
an external barrier to reverse engineering—
the original designer typically has an
indirect influence on this barrier. (optical comparator, CAD and CAE software, laser cutter, wire EDM)

• When few or no samples of the product are

available, the magnitude of this barrier
increases dramatically

• Proper equipment is often required for efficient product dissection, information

extraction, and data processing. The absence of this equipment could severely reduce
the quality of collected data. The barrier can be made larger by embedding
information that requires specialized and/or unavailable tools to extract.

Curtis, S. K. et al. (2011). The fundamentals of barriers to reverse engineering and their implementation into mechanical components. Research in Engineering Design, 22(4), 245-261. 11

11

3. Skill of the reverse engineering team

• A reverse engineering team is more likely to succeed if they have a basic
understanding of the science being analyzed and a familiarity with the process and
tools of reverse engineering.

• Knowing which approach is needed—as-built, design intent, or a combination of

both—will help maximize the return on reverse engineering investment.

Fig. Example of reverse engineering from WWII. a United States Air Force B-29 bomber b Soviet Union Tupolev Tu-4 bomber

Curtis, S. K. et al. (2011). The fundamentals of barriers to reverse engineering and their implementation into mechanical components. Research in Engineering Design, 22(4), 245-261. 12

12

6
 11/11/2024

Barrier Implementation

• An innovative product: the driving force for

technological progress

• If successfully reverse engineered: the market

advantage is quickly lost

• Affects incentive for innovation

• The best interest of original designers: to design

products that are difficult to reverse engineer

13
Curtis, S. K. et al. (2011). The fundamentals of barriers to reverse engineering and their implementation into mechanical components. Research in Engineering Design, 22(4), 245-261.

13

Thank you

14

14

7
 12/14/2024

AM Numerical

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Numerical

A prototype of a tube with a square cross-section is to be

fabricated using stereolithography. The outside dimension of the
square = 100 mm, and the inside dimension = 90 mm (wall
thickness = 5 mm except at corners). The height of the tube (z-
direction) = 80 mm. Layer thickness = 0.10 mm. The diameter of
the laser beam (“spot size”) = 0.25 mm, and the beam is moved
across the surface of the photopolymer at a velocity of 500 mm/s.
Compute an estimate for the time required to build the part; if 10
seconds are lost, each layer lowers the height of the platform that
holds the part. Neglect the time for post-curing.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

1
 12/14/2024

Numerical

•In a selective laser melting process, the scanning speed was kept equal to 500 mm/s,
laser power was 100 W, hatch spacing was 0.2 mm and layer thickness was 0.08 mm.
During the building of the part, it was observed that the energy density was not sufficient
for sintering of the metal particles. Therefore, the energy density was doubled to affect
the scan speed, keeping other parameters constant. If the material requires, 20 J/mm3.
Calculate the following –
• Energy density after increment
New scanning velocity
Excess/deficient energy

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Numerical

A solid part (see figure) of polymer material is to be fabricated by additive

manufacturing (AM) in square-shaped layers starting from the bottom of the part
working upwards. The nozzle diameter of the (AM) machine is a/10 mm and the
nozzle follows a linear serpentine path parallel to the sides of the square layers
with a feed rate of a/5 mm/min.
Ignore any tool path motions other than those involved in adding material, and any
other delays between layers or the serpentine scan lines.
The time taken to fabricate this part is ____________ minutes.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

2
 12/14/2024

Numerical

In a powder feed AM system , the steel metal is injected using an off-

axis nozzle at an angle of 60° from vertical through a nozzle of
diameter 5mm; if the laser power is 1kW, find out the catchment
efficiency of the process. Given Tm=1425°C, To=25°C, k= 50 W/mK.

ɳ = 10.34%

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Numerical

In a powder feed-based AM Process, the side feeding nozzle is used

to feed material into the molten pool. If with the same setup and
laser power the material is changed from A to B. And the melting
point of materials A and B is the same, but the thermal conductivity
of material B is 4 times higher than the thermal conductivity of
material A; find out the ratio of catchment efficiencies of both
materials.

ɳA/ɳB = 16

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

3
 12/14/2024

Numerical

A manufacturer is using a laser-based metal powder bed fusion

machine (cost: USD 10 lakhs) for the fabrication of a part (200 mm
× 200 mm × 200 mm). The average time taken by the recoater for
placing a new layer (layer thickness 25 µm) was 9 s. The laser beam
scans the powder layer in raster pattern with a speed of 300 mm/s
and 0.1 mm hatch spacing. Calculate/discuss with respect to the
building of a single part –
(a) Total recoating time (s),
(b) Total recoating cost (USD),
(c) Total hatching time (s),
(d) Total hatching cost (USD),

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Machine hourly running costs =

(Machine purchase cost + interest)/(payback period × % running time × yearly hours)

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

4
 12/14/2024

Post-processing of AM Parts
(Integration of techniques)

Introduction
• Post processing: final step of the manufacturing process which offers –
 smoothing and
 strengthening

• Despite many advantages of AM over traditional manufacturing, it is still imperfect.

• AM parts can still have poor surface finishes, and the production method can affect
the mechanical properties of the component.

• The main objective of post-processing is to eliminate potentially dangerous defects

• Post processing methods can include –

 heat treatment (to reduce the stress on components)
 separating the components from support structure
 surface finishing (CNC machining, blasting and polishing)
• The post processing of AM parts can be just as vital as the fabrication itself. 2

1
 12/14/2024

Issues in AM
Surface roughness achieved in different AM processes
• Demand for better materials.
• Existing CAD systems.
• Data management (Size of STL file)
• Low-volume production
• Financial overheads
• Surface Quality of Products

Kumbhar, N. N., & Mulay, A. V. (2018). Post processing methods used to improve surface finish of products which are manufactured by additive manufacturing technologies: a
review. Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India): Series C, 99(4), 481-487. 3

Issues in AM
To minimize the Stair casing
a CAD Model b Slicing c Actual output d Stair casing effect effect, the possible approaches
are –
• Control over parameters
 part orientation
 layer thickness and
 orientation of material
deposition
• Post-processing techniques
Effect of reducing layer thickness

Kumbhar, N. N., & Mulay, A. V. (2018). Post processing methods used to improve surface finish of products which are manufactured by additive manufacturing technologies: a
review. Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India): Series C, 99(4), 481-487. 4

2
 12/14/2024

Post-processing methods

Classification of Post-processing methods

Different raw materials
Nature of the process

Kumbhar, N. N., & Mulay, A. V. (2018). Post processing methods used to improve surface finish of products which are manufactured by additive manufacturing technologies: a
review. Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India): Series C, 99(4), 481-487. 6

3
 12/14/2024

Thermal Post-Processing

• Hot isostatic pressing

• Heat treatment
 Solution HT
 T6 HT

Optical micrographs presenting defects. (a) Electron beam melting

(EBM) part (b) after the hot isostatic pressing (HIP) treatment.

Schematic diagram of SEM micrographs. (a,b) as-built. (c,d) HIP. (e,f) HIP + HT

Peng, X., Kong, L., Fuh, J. Y. H., & Wang, H. (2021). A Review of Post-Processing Technologies in Additive Manufacturing. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, 5(2), 38. 7

Laser Peening

Peng, X., Kong, L., Fuh, J. Y. H., & Wang, H. (2021). A Review of Post-Processing Technologies in Additive Manufacturing. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, 5(2), 38. 8

4
 12/14/2024

Laser Polishing
• During laser polishing, morphology apexes can reach
the melting temperature rapidly when the energy
source irradiates the material surface.
• The liquid material redistributes to the same level
after molten-pool formation because of the effect of
gravity and surface tension.
• Once the laser beam stops scanning the surface, the
temperature of the heat-affected zone (HAZ) drops
rapidly, resulting in the solidification of the molten
pool, and the surface roughness reduces accordingly

(a) Overview of the substrate and laser-polished region. (b)

Microstructure of the laser-polished region. (c) Microstructure of the
substrate. (d) XRD profiles.
Peng, X., Kong, L., Fuh, J. Y. H., & Wang, H. (2021). A Review of Post-Processing Technologies in Additive Manufacturing. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, 5(2), 38. 9

Machining and Abrasive Finishing

SLM-ed AlSiMg0.75
Difference in surface finish for
an untreated and CNC
machined part

(a) conventional diamond turning (b) ultrasonic elliptical vibration-assisted machining

Peng, X., Kong, L., Fuh, J. Y. H., & Wang, H. (2021). A Review of Post-Processing Technologies in Additive Manufacturing. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, 5(2), 38. 10

10

5
 12/14/2024

Machining and Abrasive Finishing

Micro-blasting of SLM-ed tubular lattice structure. (a) setup. (b) lattice structure before micro-blasting. (c) after blasting

Peng, X., Kong, L., Fuh, J. Y. H., & Wang, H. (2021). A Review of Post-Processing Technologies in Additive Manufacturing. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, 5(2), 38. 11

11

Impact of post-processing

True stress strain plots of 3D printed samples with different printing speeds: (a) 88 μm (fast) and (b) 110 μm (slow) respectively.
In each plot, the three curves correspond to three different treatments including 3D printing (blue), 3D printing and 900 °C heat
treatment (red) and 3D printing, 900 °C hot forging and 900 °C heat treatment (yellow)

Peng, X., Kong, L., Fuh, J. Y. H., & Wang, H. (2021). A Review of Post-Processing Technologies in Additive Manufacturing. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, 5(2), 38. 12

12

6
 12/14/2024

Impact of post-processing

Mean values of conventional Vickers hardness of fast (blue) and slow (yellow) 3D printed samples for three different treatments, namely direct 3D
printing, 900 °C heat treating after printing, and 900 °C forging (900°C H) and 900 °C heat treatment after printing (900°C F+900°C H).

Peng, X., Kong, L., Fuh, J. Y. H., & Wang, H. (2021). A Review of Post-Processing Technologies in Additive Manufacturing. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, 5(2), 38. 13

13

Thank you

14

14