Introduction

INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMETATION AND

CONTROL SYSTEMS

Lecture 6. Industrial
instrumentation and actuators

Assoc. Prof. Dr. BUI Dang Thanh ❖ The prime mover or actuator is a device that produces a motion by converting
energy and signals going into the system. The motion it produces can be either
School of Electronic & Electrical Engineering,
rotary or linear.
Hanoi University of Science and Technology
❖ It provides the source of mechanical power in a control system.
1 Dai Co Viet road, Ha Noi, Viet Nam ❖ Typical prime movers are motors, hydraulic cylinders, and control valves.

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Presentation Outline Linear Actuator

❖ An actuator that can provide a

• Overview of Industrial actuators back-and-forth straight-line motion
is called a linear actuator.
▪ Electrical actuator ❖ Some devices (such as the
solenoid and the linear motor) can
convert electrical energy directly
▪ Hydraulic actuator
into linear motion, but more often it
is done in two stages.
▪ Pneumatic actuator
❖ The three general types of linear
actuators are electric, hydraulic,
• Control valves and pneumatic. Each type has its
particular advantages and
disadvantages, and all are in wide
use.

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Electric linear actuators

❖ Electric actuators require the least hardware and maintenance.
❖ However, they tend to be relatively slow-moving or to have other restrictions, which makes
them suitable in only a limited number of applications.

Industrial Actuators

Diagram of an electric linear actuator Electric linear actuator main component

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 Leadscrew linear actuators Solenoids
A solenoid is a simple electromagnetic device that
A leadscrew linear actuator has a threaded shaft converts electrical energy directly into linear
(called the leadscrew or drive screw), which is rotated mechanical motion, but it has a very short stroke
by an electric motor. A “nut” on the shaft moves in a (length of movement), which limits its
linear motion as the shaft rotates. applications.

The solenoid consists of a coil of wire with an iron

To reduce the friction and increase the efficiency, plunger that is allowed to move through the
many units use ball bearings to transfer the force from center of the coil.
the drive screw to the nut.
When the coil is energized, the resulting
magnetic field pulls the plunger to the middle of
When the shaft rotates, the balls roll in the grooves. the coil. The magnetic force is unidirectional—a
When the balls get to one end of the nut, they are spring is required to return the plunger to its
recirculated to the other end through small pipes. Ball unenergized position.
bearing screws practically eliminate friction when
Cutaway drawing of a ball bearing screw
compared with the traditional nut on thread design.

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Example 1 Solenoids
An electric linear actuator is used to lift 600 Both AC and DC solenoids are used, the major difference being that AC solenoids use a
lb castings for a vertical distance of 8 in. plunger and frame made from laminations instead of solid iron. Laminations are thin sheets of
lacquered iron that are riveted together to form the frame and plunger. Laminations prevent
Using the data from beside figures, how long
power-consuming eddy currents (induced by the AC) from circulating in the metal parts of the
will the lifting operation take? solenoid.

Using the top graph of beside figure, we

see that for a load of 600 lb the extension
rate is about 0.9 in./s. The time required to
lift a distance of 8 in. is calculated as
follows:

Performance characteristics of a
typical electric linear actuator

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Leadscrew linear actuators Solenoids

The unit resembles and acts like a hydraulic
cylinder, the main visual difference being the
attached electric motor. Many units come with a
built-in electrically activated brake that prevents the
shaft from rotating when the motor is not energized.
This feature ensures that a heavy load cannot back A continuous duty solenoid is
drive the motor after it is turned off. Also, “over- designed to deal with the
travel” limit switches should be included in the heat, so it can operate all the
application design, to cut off power to the motor if it time.
attempts to drive beyond its intended travel. An intermittent duty solenoid
is designed to operate for a
Electric linear actuators come in all sizes, with rated
short time and then take time
loads from under 100 lb to over 1000 lb and strokes
to cool.
from 4 to 36 in. and beyond. An important parameter
for electric actuators is extension rate, that is, how
fast the unit can extend and contract. A typical
extension rate is around 1 in./s, but this depends on
the size of the motor and the load. Performance characteristics of a
typical electric linear actuator

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 Electric Linear Motors Hydraulic systems

One of the newer types of linear actuators is Hydraulic systems are ideally suited to
the electric linear motor. Basically, a linear provide a strong, fast, or slow linear
motor is a rotary brushless DC motor (BLDC) motion. The system uses a fluid (light-
that has been rolled out flat. Linear motors grade oil) to transfer energy from a
convert electric power directly into linear pump to an actuator.
motion.
Hydraulic systems consists of the
A linear motor consists of two parts: the base following components: a tank of
unit known as the magnet way, which consists hydraulic fluid, a pump, a control valve,
of an iron plate with a row of alternate-pole and a cylinder. the pump pushes the
permanent magnets, and the moving part fluid through a tube to the control
known as the slider, which contains the coils. valve. The control valve directs the
The slider is supported on linear ball bearings fluid to the cylinder, causing the piston
so that it can slide along over the magnet way to move down in response to the fluid
(there is a small air gap between them). A pressure. The pump is the actual
flexible cable connects the slider to the drive source of mechanical power, and it is
unit. physically separate from the cylinder
actuator.

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Electric Linear Motors Basic Principles of Hydraulics

Beside figure illustrates the operation of
a simplified three-phase linear motor.
Note that there are three coils spaced
over four magnets. In Figure (a), coil A is The fluid on the high-pressure side of the
switched on, causing it to become a pump is pressurized to 100 psi. This means
north pole (N). The attractive force that the tubing, cylinder walls, and piston face
between this N pole and the nearest S are all receiving 100 lb of force for each
pole on the magnet way causes the square inch of area. All internal surfaces are
slider to move to the right. When the under pressure, but only the piston is
slider has moved to the position shown movable, so it moves to the right.
in (b), coil A is switched off and coil B is F = PA
switched on, causing renewed attractive Where:
force to the right, and the slider moves F = total force exerted on the piston
P = hydrostatic pressure Hydrostatic pressure pushes out in all directions
further (to the right). When the slider
gets to position (c), coil B is switched off A = area of the piston face
and coil C is switched on, causing the
slider to move to position (d). The coils
have now advanced one full cycle. They
are now back to the same orientation as
in (a), and the whole sequence starts
over
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Electric Linear Motors Example 2

An actual linear motor would probably be
operated in a bipolar mode, wherein each coil
becomes alternately north and south, and two of The hydraulic cylinder in the beside
the three coils are on at the same time. This figure is 3 in. in diameter. Find the force
system produces smoother operation with more exerted on the piston if the pressure is
torque but requires a more complicated drive 100 psi.
unit because current reversals are necessary.
Figure beside shows one schematic for a three-
phase bipolar linear motor that permits the
current in each coil to go in both directions
(allowing it to be either a north or a south pole).
The three push–pull amplifiers (Q1 –Q2 ), (Q3 –
Q4 ), (Q5 –Q6 ) could be driven by the three
waveforms shown in Figure 10.9(b). These
waveforms would be created from the Hall-
effect sensor outputs. Notice in Figure 10.9(b)
that the voltage peaks in the sequence A, B,C;
this would correspond to energizing the coils as
a “north” in the sequence A, B, C. Using sine
waves to turn on the coils causes the force to be
passed gently from one coil to the next and
practically eliminates cogging.
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 Example 3 Hydraulic Pumps
A 2-in. diameter hydraulic cylinder is being supplied with a In an active hydraulic system, a pump is used to create the hydrostatic pressure.
pressure of 1000 kPa. There are 3 types of hydraulic pumps
Find the force exerted on the piston in pounds. • Gear pump
• Vane pump
• Axial piston pump

Hydraulic Pumps

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Basic Principles of Hydraulics Hydraulic Pumps

Static hydraulic systems can be used to “amplify” a force. The system contains two cylinders of
different diameters that are connected by a tube. When a force is applied to the small piston, a
pressure develops. This same pressure is transmitted through the tube and is applied to the large Gear pump consists of two meshed gears
piston. Because the large piston has more surface area, it receives a larger net force. Of course, it is in a housing. As the gears rotate, fluid is
also true that the large piston will move a shorter distance than the small piston because the work trapped in the little spaces between the
done by the two pistons must be the same. teeth and the housing (both top and
bottom) and is conveyed from the inlet to
the outlet. The mesh between the gears in
the center is tight enough so that no fluid
moves through either way at that point.
This type of pump is also known as a
positive-displacement pump because a
constant volume of fluid is pumped for
every revolution of the gears
A hydraulic system that “amplifies” force
A hydraulic gear pump

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Hydraulic Pumps
Vane pump consists of an offset rotor in a housing with retractable vanes. The
spring-loaded vanes push out and seal against the housing wall. Because there is
more fluid between the vanes in the top half of the housing than in the bottom, there
is a net transfer of fluid from the inlet to the outlet. In some designs, the position of
the rotor axis is adjustable. The more offset the rotor axis, the more fluid is pumped.

A hydraulic vane pump

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 Hydraulic Pumps Pressure control valves
A pressure-control valve is a spring-loaded valve that is capable of maintaining a
An axial piston pump uses small pistons reciprocating back-and-forth to pump the
constant pressure in a system, regardless of the flow rate. If the pump were
fluid. the pump consists of a rotating cylinder and a metal ring called a swash plate
connected directly to the cylinder, it would have to start and stop each time the
(which does not rotate). The cylinder contains a number of small pistons that do the
piston moved to a new position. When a pressure-control valve is put into the
actual pumping. One end of each piston rides against the swash plate. Because the
system, the pump can remain on the whole time—when the fluid pressure exceeds
swash plate is at an angle to the cylinder, each piston is forced to move in-and-out
the preset limit, the valve opens, and the surplus fluid is simply returned to the tank.
with each rotation of the cylinder. By changing the angle of the swash plate, the
In other words, when the piston is not moving, the fluid is simply circulating from the
quantity of fluid pumped per revolution is changed
tank, through the pump, through the valve, and back to the tank. If the pressure-
control valve opens at 1000 psi, then the pressure in the lines will never get much
above 1000 psi.

A relief valve circulates

A pressure-control valve (partially
surplus fluid to the tank
open position)

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Hydraulic actuators Accumulators

The most common type of hydraulic actuator is the hydraulic cylinder. It consists of
a piston and a cylinder body. The piston has a rod that extends out one end of the An accumulator, which is connected into the system, is a special kind of spring-loaded
cylinder. Fluid can enter and leave the cylinder on either side of the piston through storage tank for hydraulic fluid (Figure 10.20). The accumulator serves two functions. First, it
acts as a low-pass filter to remove pressure pulsations from the pump; second, it stores extra
ports. Under normal operating conditions, both ends of the cylinder are filled with
fluid for those high-demand times when the actuator requires fluid at a faster rate than the
fluid. If additional fluid enters port A, the piston will move toward the right, but the pump can supply.
fluid must be able to escape through port B.
The three types of accumulators are: spring-
loaded (already mentioned), weighted, and
gas-pressurized. The weighted type uses a
weight to provide the pressure on the fluid.
This has the advantage of providing a
constant pressure but the disadvantage of
needing to be mounted in an upright and
relatively stable position. The gas-pressurized
type uses a gas (dry nitrogen) under pressure
to provide the push on the fluid. This is the
most popular type because the pressure it
exerts is easily adjustable and it can be
mounted in any position.
An accumulator in a system.
A double-acting hydraulic cylinder.

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Hydraulic actuators Directional Control Valves

Some hydraulic actuators can create rotary motion and are very similar to the pump The flow-control valve is used to regulate the flow rate of hydraulic fluid. For this
designs discussed previously. For example, the gear motor rotary actuator shown in discussion, the most important type of flow valve is the directional control valve,
under figure is almost identical to the gear pump. For the motor, fluid is pumped in which regulates the movement of the piston in the cylinder.
the left side of the case, putting that area under pressure (indicated by p). Within the The control valve consists of two major parts: the valve body and the spool.
pressurized area, all surfaces receive a force, but only those three surfaces
indicated with arrows will affect rotation (the other surfaces are balanced out or
unmovable). The pressure on the teeth next to the case (top and bottom arrows) will
cause the gears to rotate as shown. The pressure on the meshing teeth in the
center would cause the gears to turn in the opposite direction, but this torque is
overpowered because two teeth (top and bottom) are pushing the other way.

A hydraulic gear motor A directional control valve for a double acting cylinder

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 Directional Control Valves Compressors, Dryers, and Tank
A basic hydraulic system includes the tank, filter, pump, accumulator, pressure-
control valve, directional control valve, and cylinder. The constant-displacement The air compressor is a machine that
pump would be running all the time the system is on. During those times when the pumps air from the atmosphere into a
cylinder is not moving, the fluid from the pump, after filling the accumulator, returns tank. There are a number of types of
to the tank through the pressure-control valve. Of special importance is the filter that compressors, but one of the most
removes small contaminants, which can get into the fluid. These contaminants can common is the reciprocating piston
cause abrasive wear on the system components and reduce their lifetime compressor.
considerably. The compressor crankshaft is driven
by an external power source,
typically an electric motor. As the
crankshaft rotates, the piston is
forced up-and-down in the cylinder.
The air is drawn into the cylinder
through a valve during the intake
stroke then during the exhaust
stroke, the air is pushed out through
another valve into the pressure tank.
A basic hydraulic system

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Pneumatic systems Compressors, Dryers, and Tank

Pneumatic systems use air pressure to create mechanical motion. The basic system Water vapor in the compressed air must be removed, or it will eventually damage
includes an intake filter that traps dirt before it enters the system, an air compressor the pneumatic components. Removing the moisture in the air is done by the dryer,
that provides a source of compressed air a dryer that removes the moisture in the of which there are several types. One type, an aftercooler, chills the air, causing the
air, a pressure tank that is a reservoir of compressed air, a pressure regulator that moisture to condense into drops, which can then be drained off.
maintains air pressure, a valve that controls the air flow, and a pneumatic cylinder The receiver tank (pressure tank) receives air from the compressor and becomes
that creates the mechanical motion the high-pressure air reservoir for the system. Figure below shows the compressor
and tank system. Power to the compressor motor is controlled by a pressure switch
on the tank. When the tank pressure falls below a set value, the switch closes, and
the compressor motor starts. When the tank pressure increases to a specified value,
the switch opens, turning off the compressor.

A receiver tank (pressure tank) system showing a pressure

switch, which controls the compressor
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Pneumatic systems Pressure Regulators

Pneumatic systems are very similar to hydraulic systems, but there are several The tank pressure can range anywhere between the high and low limits of the pressure
important differences. switch. Some systems cannot tolerate this variation and hence require a pressure regulator to
The major functional difference is that air is compressible, whereas hydraulic fluid is be installed between the tank and the system components. The pressure regulator can
not. supply air at a constant pressure regardless of the source pressure as long as the source
Another difference between hydraulic and pneumatic systems is that pneumatic pressure stays above the desired regulated pressure. A spring-loaded diaphragm is pushed
on by regulated air pressure. If the regulated air pressure starts to fall, the reduced pressure
systems do not have to return the low-pressure air to the compressor
on the diaphragm causes it to move downward, thus opening a valve and allowing more high-
pressure air in.

A pneumatic pressure regulator

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 Pneumatic Control Valves Pneumatic Actuators
Rotary actuators convert air pressure into rotary mechanical motion. One common
Pneumatic control valves regulate the air design is the vane motor. The motor consists of a rotor that is offset in a housing.
flow, which in most cases means on or Protruding from the rotor are spring-loaded vanes that seal against the housing and
off. Many configurations are possible, but slide in-and-out of the rotor as it turns. Motion is achieved because the vanes on the
of particular interest is the bidirectional top have more exposed surface area than those on the bottom and hence receive
control valve that causes a piston to more force, causing the rotor to turn clockwise.
move in either direction. A pneumatic
bidirectional control valve is functionally
similar to the hydraulic control valve
shown in figure in slide 33, but there are
some differences. For instance,
pneumatic control valves use O rings
(rubber seals) to minimize internal leaks.
Pneumatic valves are usually designed to
be full on or completely off and are driven
by either an electric solenoid or a
pneumatic control signal. Finally, these
valves require only one tube coming.
Cutaway view of a pneumatic control valve
A pneumatic vane motor

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Pneumatic Actuators
Pneumatic actuators convert air pressure into mechanical motion. There are two basic types:
linear actuators (cylinder/piston or diaphragm types) and rotary actuators. Piston and rotary
actuators are functionally similar to their hydraulic counterparts. Pneumatic cylinders are
available in a variety of shapes and sizes. There are two basic internal configurations. The
double-acting cylinder connects to the valve with two tubes and can be driven in either
direction. The single-acting cylinder can only be driven in one direction with air pressure and
is returned by a spring.

Control valves

Two types of pneumatic cylinders

Pneumatic cylinders
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Example 5 Introduction
❑ A valve is a device that regulates, controls, or controls the
A spring-loaded single-acting cylinder has a diameter of 2 in. and a stroke of 2 in. flow of a liquid (gas, liquid, liquefied solid, or slurry) by
The return spring has a spring constant of 3 lb/in. The available air pressure is 30 opening, closing, or partially obstructing various
psi. What force can this cylinder supply to a load at the end of its stroke? passages. This opening and closing can be done
manually or by pneumatic, electrical or hydraulic
actuators in response to an external control signal and is
called a Control Valve.
❑ Control Valve
▪ Acts as an actuator in the control loop that is
responsible for receiving control signals and directly
controlling the flow.
▪ Maintain parameters such as pressure, flow,
temperature or level at desired values, despite
changes in dynamics and loads.
▪ Designed with characteristics suitable for the type of
fluid it controls, similar to meeting the protocols of the
control device.
❑ The development of Control Valves in response to the
processes they or the systems they control manifests
itself in such elements as the design of the valve body,
actuator, controller and interface fittings.
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 Valve Type and Sizing
❖ While selecting a valve, consider the
valve style, valve size, and inherent
Choosing the correct valve size is as equally characteristics that provide the broadest
important as choosing appropriate control valve possible control range for an application.
materials and pressure temperature ratings. The economic results of an operating
❖ Oversized valves limit the efforts of plant are directly impacted by the

Parameters to evaluated the reducing process variability. The pipes

may be designed larger than required
performance factors. These parameters
(like response time, dead time or gain)
are measured in open-loop and closed-
Performance of Control Valves considering some future plans and
safety factors and some larger rotary
manual ball valves etc. The oversized
loop conditions. Control valve assemblies
play a vital role in loop/unit/ plant
control valves operate at lower levels of performance. The parameters (material
positions due to less flow. If the valve of construction, flow capacity, leakage
has dead band, the situation becomes and open-loop lab performance data) are
even worse. The large flow of liquid in
sudden jerks leads to process variability. not treated as not enough to specify and
select valve, unless the dynamic
characteristics are specified. This is the
fact that a single subsystem cannot be
specified in isolation to achieve loop
performance.

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Deadband
• Dead band is the range through which an input can be
varied without initiating an observable response.
• For example, in a diaphragm, actuated control valve dead
band is the amount with which the diaphragm pressure can
be changed without causing the valve stem to move.
• Studies suggest that dead band is one of the major
contributors to excess variability. The control valve
assemblies can be a primary source of dead band in an
instrumentation loop. It is usually expressed as a
Control Valves' Capabilities
percentage of diaphragm pressure spans. Backlash and
striction behavior is caused by mechanical tolerances and
friction in the control valve-positioner-actuator-linkage
and Capacities
system. Friction and backlash, and dead zones in relays
are some forms and reasons for the dead band. Most
process control applications using advanced systems send
signals which are very small (sometimes less than 1
percent).
• A well-designed valve is expected to respond to these
small changes to keep a tight control on the process. If the
dead band is more, the valve may not respond to these
signals which in turn creates disturbance to the process
and hence to the process variability.
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Valve Response Time Valve Type and Characterization

The modern control systems can

control difficult process with less
variability only if the final control
element such as valve can reach its
desired position quickly and responds
to smallest changes in the control
signals (less than one percent). The
process variability is improved when the
control valve assembly identifies and
quickly responds to the small changes. Linear trim
This is a function of the volume of air Equal percentage trim
that is required to produce any desired
pressure on the diaphragm of a valve
actuator. To a lesser extent, speed of
response depends on the friction
between the valve stem, packing the
bushings in the valve (rotary) body and
actuator, and the seal to rotary element.

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 Valve Type and Characterization Control Valve Performance Considerations
❑ Most control valves used in the process industry have one of the three flow characteristics:
linear, quick-opening, or equal percentage.
Shutoff Capability
▪ Linear: the straight line on a rectangular plot of flow versus percentage of rated valve ❑ A valve’s shutoff capability, which ordinarily is rated in terms of classes specified in ANSI/
stem travel. A linear valve gives approximately equal increments of flow per increment FCI 70-2 [4] or IEC 534–4, must also be considered during valve selection. In real time
of valve stem travel at a constant pressure drop.
service, shutoff leakage depends on various factors that include temperature, the condition
▪ Equal Percentage: the equal increments of rated travel will ideally give equal of the sealing surfaces, pressure drop, and stem valves (very importantly for sliding). Stem
percentage changes of the existing flow. valves force load on the seat. Shutoff ratings are generally stated based on standard test
▪ Quick-opening: maximum flow achieved with minimum travel. A quick-opening valve conditions. The actual service conditions will be different from standard conditions.
has an approximately straight-line characteristic near its seat (from 0 to about 60% flow However, it is difficult to predict the leakage at service conditions and hence the standard
at 30% travel). Beyond this point, flow increases too rapidly with valve opening for the conditions are used for comparison among different types of valves.
quick opening characteristic to be useful in a flow-proportioning application. ❑ Tight shutoff is particularly important in high-pressure valves because leakage can cause
❑ Valve characterizations can be changed by reshaping the valve trim. For example, seat damage, leading to ultimate destruction of the trim. Special precautions in seat
modifying the plug proles of a single-ported, stem-guided globe valve will give you the materials, seat preparation, and seat load are necessary to ensure success. Valve users
typical linear, quick-opening, and equal-percentage characteristics. tend to over specify6.10 Instrumentation and Control Systems shutoff requirements,
incurring unnecessary cost. Actually, very few throttling valves really need to perform
double duty as tight block valves. Since tight shutoff valves generally cost more initially and
to maintain serious consideration is warranted.
Valve seats for each type of characteristics

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Control Valve Performance Considerations Control Valve Performance Considerations

Rangeability The considerations for valve selection can be summarized as follows:
Noise and Cavitation ❖ For both economic and technical reasons, the following valves are recommended. For lower
• The ratio of maximum to minimum flow rate in a
ranges: sliding-stem valves; for intermediate capacities: ball valves; and for very largest sizes:
control valve can be defined as Rangeability, a ❖Noise and cavitation are undesirable behaviors in a
characteristic of a control valve. valve, and they occur in conditions where there is high high-performance buttery valves.
pressure drop and flow rate. ❖ For the very least demanding services in which price is the dominant consideration, one might
• Higher rangeability is needed if there is an ❖Cavitation is the noisy and potentially damaging consider economy sliding-stem valves for the small-size applications and buttery valves for the
anticipated large change in the flow and also in case largest.
implosion of bubbles formed when the pressure of a
the valve is designed for working in startup, normal
and maximum flow conditions. For a wide liquid shortly dips below its vapor pressure through a ❖ For sizes of NPS 0.5–3 or DN 15–80, general-purpose sliding-stem valves provide exceptional
rangeability, partial ball valves, rotary valves are constriction at high velocity. In controlling gases and value. For a minimal price premium over rotary products, they offer unparalleled performance and
preferred compared to the normal sliding stem vapors, noise results from the turbulence associated service life. The premium for these devices over rotary products is warranted. For severe service
varieties. with high-velocity streams. applications, the most frequently used and often the only available product is the sliding-stem
❖When cavitation or noise found to be a problem, its valve.
Pressure Drop
severity must be predicted from the valve’s ❖ Applications ranging from NPS 4 to NPS 6 or DN 100 to DN 150 are best served by such
• The maximum pressure drop at shutoff, when fully specifications according to well-known techniques, transitional valve styles as the eccentric plug valve or the ball valve. These products have excellent
or partially open, is an essential selection factor. and valves with better specifications must be sought, performance and lower cost. They also offer higher capacity levels than globe designs.
Sliding-stem valves are good in both regards due to if necessary. Cavitation-control and noise-control trims ❖ In valve sizes such as NPS8 or DN200, the maximum pressure ratings are high while maintaining
their rugged and well-supported design of their are widely available in sliding-stem valves at a the pressure drop to lower levels. This gives rise to the possibility of using high-performance
moving parts. progressive penalty in terms of cost and flow capacity. buttery valves for most situations. These valves are economical, offer tight shutoff and provide
• Most rotary valves are restricted to pressure drops, ❖Rotary valves have more limited noise and good control capability. They provide cost and capacity benefits well beyond those of globe and
well below the body pressure rating. This is cavitation-control options and are also much more ball valves.
especially true, under follwing conditions as the susceptible to cavitation and noise at a given pressure ❖ There will be situations where the general commercially available valves do not meet the process
dynamic stresses imposed on the disk or ball drop. demands. In such circumstances, the special valve design and manufacturing is performed which
segment by high-velocity flow.
are meant to handle high noise, high pressure, cavitation, temperature, etc.
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Control Valve Performance Considerations Valve Sizing

End Connections Flow Capacity

❖ When compared to rotary valves, sliding-
• The valve end connections must also be stem valves are highly costly for large
considered during valve selection. The lines but for small flows, rotary valve
question to be answered is whether the
might not be available. If the same valve
desired connection style is available in the
valve style being considered. In some needs to manage a much higher flow in
situations, end connections can quickly limit the future, a sliding-stem valve with
the selection or dramatically affect the price. replaceable, restricted trim would be the
For instance, if a piping speciation calls for best option. Generally, rotaries have a
welded connections only, the choice might be bigger capacity than sliding-stem valves.
limited to sliding-stem valves. ❖ Rotaries are employed in applications

• The few weld-end buttery and ball valves that where the pressure drop is rather
are available are rather expensive. minimal. Rotaries, on the other hand, are
not ideal for high-pressure drop
applications (letdown or pressure
regulation).

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 Valve Sizing Valve Sizing

Viscous Flow: Piping Considerations

❖ Rearranging the equation so that all of the
• The type of flow such as laminar or ❖Valve installation on a pipeline will be
fluid and process-related variables are on the
turbulent plays a role in the selection and different from the standard test conditions
right-hand side, the expression for the valve
Cv required for the particular application is
design of the control valve. In the case of even though the recommendations from the
laminar flow, the uid particles move suppliers are followed such as straight lines
based on a given flow rate and pressure drop,
horizontally and parallel. In the case of in the upstream and downstream. This is
a required Cv value can be calculated. This Cv
turbulent flow, the flow of the uid is due to additional elbows, reducers and tee
can then be compared to Cv values for a random, in all the directions, with
particular valve size and valve design. junctions installed in the pipes and the
different velocities at different directions.
Generally, the required Cv must be between However, the net flow remains the same additional pressure drop in the line due to
70% and 90% of the selected valve’s Cv which is sum of flow in all the directions. all these components. In order to
capability. Allowance for minimum and The correction factor F_r is a function of compensate the effects of such additional
maximum flow pressure conditions should Reynolds number which describes the components in the pipe, a correction factor
also be considered. extent of the turbulent flow. Fp is considered.

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Valve Sizing Control Valves, Terminology and Types

Fundamental comprehension is that actuator is controlled by the control system and valve is in
turn driven by Figure. A simple final control element composition would look as described in Figure.
Different terms are described as follows:
▪ Actuator spring: is installed inside the casing and creates a counter-
Basic Sizing Procedure
balance to the direction of the diaphragm pressure.
• Once a valve is selected and C v is known, the pressure ▪ Actuator/valve stem: connects the actuator and valve and is used
drop for a given flow rate or the flow rate for a given as transmission line for the force generated from the actuator to the
pressure drop is calculated by substituting and solving valve.
for the appropriate quantities in the equation. Refer to ▪ Bonnet: is the casing in which the valve is packed, and all the
Figure for the flow with reference to the pressure drop. internal parts of the valve are arranged. Bonnet is also the part of
the housing which is used for opening the valve to access the
• This basic liquid equation covers conditions governed internal components. It also provides the mechanism for connecting
by the test assumptions. Unfortunately, many the actuator to the valve body. Usually the bonnets are bolted,
applications fall outside the bounds of these standards threaded or welded with pressure seals to the body.
and therefore outside of the basic liquid-ow equation. ▪ Cage: is a part that is housed inside the valve and surrounds the
Instead of developing a special flow equation for all trim. The cage along with the trim denes the characteristics of the
possible deviations, it is better to account for different valve and flow. In addition, the cage provides a seating surface to
behavior using a simple correction factor. the trim and provides stability, guidance and facilitates assembly of
other parts of the trim. These are the reasons for which the walls of
the cage are sensitive parts and can change the flow
characteristics if damaged.
▪ Diaphragm: A flexible, pressure responsive element that transmits
force to the diaphragm plate and actuator stem is known as a
diaphragm.

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Valve Sizing Control Valves, Terminology and Types

▪ Diaphragm case: The diaphragm case is meant for enclosing the diaphragm with top and bottom
Choked flow sections. The casing is designed to create the pressure chambers to act on the diaphragm from both
❖Sizing equations suggest that as the pressure directions.
drop is increased, flow increases proportionally— ▪ Plug/valve plug: A term frequently used to refer to the closure member. Closure member is nothing but
forever. As the pressure drop is increased,
the moving part in a valve which fundamentally decides the rate of fluid flow.
choked flow caused by the formation of vapor
bubbles in the flow stream imposes a limit on ▪ Seat: The seat in the valve is the place where the trim closes the
liquid flow. These choked-flow conditions must be flow path using a surface and establishes the shutoff to the valve.
considered in valve sizing.
▪ Seat ring: A seat ring in the valve provides the surface for plug and
❖If the pressure drop across the valve is is part of orifice created for flow control.
increased, the flow rate increases. The situation
reaches a point where there is no additional flow ▪ Spring adjustor: A fitting that is usually threaded on the actuator
rate increase for any additional increase in stem or into the yoke, to adjust the spring compression. This
pressure difference. This condition is referred as compression is what decides the movement of the actuator.
chocked flow. This phenomenon occurs on both
liquids and gases. ▪ Stem connector: The device that connects the actuator stem to the
valve stem.

▪ Travel/indicator: The travel is the movement of the stem or the

closing member from a fully open to the fully closed position. The
indicator will be provided to know the position of the closing
member such as percent of opening or degree of rotation.

▪ Yoke: Yoke is the structure that rigidly connects the actuator power
unit to the valve.

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 Control Valves, Terminology and Types Control Valves, Terminology and Types

▪ Actuator yoke lock: Actuator yoke lock is

the area where the actuator is joined Sliding-stem Valves
with the valve stem. •Three-way valves have three end connections to allow for
▪ Trim: A trim is the subsystem in the converging or diverging operations. It is available in two
variations—diaphragm valve and the pinch valve. The
valve that includes plug, seat ring, cage, diaphragm valve uses a linear actuator to squeeze the
stem and stem pin, etc. The trim is the diaphragm onto a hard seat formed in the valve body. One
component that modulates the liquid for major disadvantage of these valves is that the elastomer
a controlled flow. Based on the popular deteriorates above 100°C and its strength limits operating
pressure to 500 kPa or less. More choices of materials, end
applications valve selection is done as connections, and control characteristics are available for
shown in Table 6.2 to 6.4: sliding-stem valves than for any other product family.
Sliding-stem valves are available in cage-guided, port-
guided, and stem-guided designs with flanged, screwed, or
welding ends.
•The important point to note here is that there is a cage in
which the valve plug always sits and its motion is guided
throughout. The arrangement does not allow the leakage of
the inlet fluid in high pressure to outlet in low pressure.
Outlet pressure acts on both sides of the plug and removes
the static unbalancing force acting on it there by reducing
the thrust required on the valve.
Three-way valves

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Control Valves, Terminology and Types Control Valves, Terminology and Types
Sliding-stem Valves Cage-guided Valve
•Cage-guided valves are similar to plug-in seat valves
• The most versatile of the control valves are the sliding-
stem valves. Mostly these are referred as globe valves differing by having a cage member around a at-
the reason being they are often designed in the shape of bottomed plug. This cage member has shaped flow
globe. Based on the internal structure they are divided passages and as the plug rises, this passage or
into multiple categories; however, the most popular and window opens to allow flow to be established and
widely used ones are straight-pattern, angle-pattern, and controlled. They may be balanced or unbalanced in
three-way valves. They can be purchased in sizes design. In an unbalanced valve, the ΔP across the
ranging from NPS 0.5 to NPS 20 or from DN 15 to DN valve acts upon the full unbalanced area of the seat
500. ring. A balanced valve uses a piston seal ring, which
enables the downstream pressure to act on both sides
• A straight-pattern valve has the structure as shown in of the valve plug, thereby nullifying most of the static
Figure. The stem moves vertically in a linear motion and
offers a linear flow in accordance to the motion while
unbalanced force. Interchangeability of trim permits
maintaining necessary resistance to the flow. choice of several flow characteristics or of noise
attenuation or anti cavitation components.
• Sliding-stem valves are available in a broad range of •Port-guided valve plugs are usually selected in
sizes, materials and end connections. The balanced plug applications with low pressure, on/off type. The ports
shown reduces unbalance force and allows the use of
guided from both sides makes the operations reliable
smaller actuators. Valves such as this are the first choice
for applications smaller than NPS 3 or DN 80. and stable in harsh operating conditions. Port-guided
Standard straight-pattern, valves do not reside in a cage they are only guided by
• Angle-pattern valve normally has input and output ports the ports, as seen in Figure. There is no structure Port-guided globe valves
sliding-stem valves at specific angles and the popular one being right angles. resembling a cage and all the way ports are the ones
In situations where the valve needs to be installed near a that directly react the valve plug position thereby
bend or tee joint, an angle-pattern valves is preferred. determining the flow characteristics.
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Control Valves, Terminology and Types Control Valves, Terminology and Types
Cage-guided Valve
Sliding-stem Valves
• High-pressure globe valves are typically available in
• Reduced trim, angle-pattern, sliding-stem valve is shown in sizes NPS 1–20 and classes 900, 1500, and 2500 .
Figure, and it shows the capability for trim reduction in a These valves provide throttling control of high-pressure
sliding-stem valve. The valve also features an outlet liner for stream and other fluids. Refer to Figure for an illustration
resistance to erosion. The unbalanced plug provides tight on the valve. Economical cast iron as well as carbon
shutoff but requires a larger actuator than balanced designs.
steel, stainless steel and other high-performance body
Normally, the above valves can be:
materials are available. Pressure ratings up to and
▪ Single-port valves with single port and plug above class 2500 or PN 420 are available. Their precise
throttling capabilities, overall performance, and general
▪ Double-port valves with two ports and single plug
sturdiness make sliding-stem valves a good bargain
▪ Two-way valves with two flow connections, single inlet despite their slight cost premium. Sliding-stem valves
and single outlet are built ruggedly to handle conditions such as piping
stress, vibration, and temperature changes.
▪ Three-way valve bodies with three flow connections, two
of inlets combine or mix flows), or one inlet and two • In sizes NPS 3 or DN 80, incremental costs over rotary
outlets (for diverging or diverting flows) can be inlets with
valves are low in comparison to the increments in
one outlet (for converging flow) also known as
benefits received. For many extreme applications, High-pressure globe valves
Standard straight-pattern, deformable flow passage whose diagram is given.
sliding-stem valves are the only suitable choice. This
sliding-stem valves includes valves for high pressure and temperature, anti-
noise valves and anti-cavitation valves.

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 Control Valves, Terminology and Types
Ball Valves
• The ball valve is a typical valve where the ball or plug can
be rotated within the body through a quarter of a turn. The
plug has a passage through it. There are three variations of
the ball
• valve. In the first, the plug is a ball with a line sized circular
flow passage, offering minimal flow restriction when fully
open. The second is a ball with a V-shaped passage,
enabling smooth control at low and high flows. The third is
the cock which uses a conical shaped plug.
Valve Controllers
• While cocks are traditionally popular in the gas industry,
they are seldom used as automatic control valves because
the plug tends to jam in the body. Valves employing a
and Accessories
rotatable plug achieve tight shutoff.
• There are two subcategories of ball valves. The through-
bore or full-ball type valve shown in Figure 6.11 is often
Ball valve used for high-pressure drop, throttling and on/off
applications in sizes to NPS 24 or DN 600. Full-port designs
exhibit high flow capacity and low susceptibility to wear by
erosive streams. However, sluggish flow throttling response
in the first 20% of ball travel makes full-bore ball valves
unsuitable for throttling applications. Newer designs in full-
ball, reduced-bore valves provide better response.
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Control Valves, Terminology and Types Valve Positioners and Controllers

Ball Valves
• Pressure ratings up to class 900 or PN 150 are available, as are a variety of end connections and
body materials. Another popular kind of ball valve is the partial-ball style (Figure).
• The position of a control valve actuator is accurately positioned in response to a control
• This subcategory is very much like the reduced-bore group except that the edge of the ball segment signal thereby improving the control. The positioner takes the input signal (4–20 ma or 3–
has a contoured notch shape for better throttling control and higher rangeability. 15 psi) and gives the output power in the form of pneumatic pressure to the actuator. The
❖ Partial-ball valves intended primarily for modulating feedback mechanism between the valve stem and positioner is formed by the linkage and
service and not merely for on/off control are generally proper signal and position can be established as needed by the controller.
higher in overall control performance than full-ball
products. They are engineered to eliminate lost motion • Positioners are required to linearize the stem position with the control signal and thereby
that is detrimental to performance. The use of flexible or improve the performance of the control valves. Sometimes, the process dynamics
movable metallic and fluoroplastic sealing elements eliminate use of positioners. The use of positioners degrades on very fast loops as the
allows tight shutoff and wide temperature and fluid response of the positioner is unable to keep up with the system.
applicability. Their straight-through flow design achieves
high capacity. Sizes range through NPS 24 or DN 600. • Positioners operate with an electronic input signal and pneumatic output or with a
Pressure ratings go to class 600 or PN 100. Price is pneumatic input and output signal. A few of the electronic versions of positioners accept an
normally lower than that of globe valves. The valve analog input signal, and while others accept a digital input signal.
shown can be used for pressure drops to 2220 psi (152
Partial ball valve bars). Class 600 and 900 or PN 100 and 150 bodies are
available; sizes range to NPS 24 or DN 600.
❖ Applications to class 600 or PN 100 can be handled by
this segmented or partial-ball valve. The flangeless body
incorporates many features to improve throttling
performance and rangeability. Tight shutoff is achieved
by either metal or composition seals.

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Control Valves, Terminology and Types Digital Positioners

Butterfly Valve

❖ The butterfly valve’s vane is so shaped that it closes off the flow passage when it is positioned Digital valve positioners are of three types:
normal to it. The vane can be rotated with a quarter-turn actuator. More like a stovepipe damper ❖ Analog signals: An output signal (4–20 mA) from the controller is provided to the positioner.
but considerably more sophisticated, this kind of valve has no seals—the disk swings close to The loop powered signal is used for the positioner electronics as well as a control signal.
but clear of the body’s inner wall. Such a valve is used for throttling applications that do not
require shutoff tighter than +1% of full flow. Body materials are cast iron, carbon steel, or ❖ HART communications: With a HART (highway addressable remote transducer) signals
stainless steel. Mounting is lugged or welded. are superimposed on control signals. These signals can provide additional diagnostics
information in the same wires used for control signal and loop power purposes.
❖ While a very broad range of designs is available in these products, they are limited by lack of
tight shutoff. Lined butterfly valves feature an elastomer or polytetrauoroethylene lining that ❖ Fieldbus: It receives digital signals and positions the valve by using digital electronic
contacts the disk to provide tight shutoff. Because this seal depends on interference between circuitry coupled to mechanical components. In these positioners, the analog
disk and liner, these designs are more limited in pressure drop. A benefit, however, is that communication is completely removed, and the data/signal is transmitted in both directions
because of the liner, the process fluid never touches the metallic body. Thus, these products can by digital means. These methods of communication provide more diagnostics, better
be used in many corrosive situations. reliability and reduced cost of installation.
❖ Heavy shafts and disks characterize high-performance buttery valves, full pressure rated bodies
and sophisticated seals that provide tight shutoff. Eccentric shaft mounting allows the disk to
swing clear of the seal to minimize wear and torque. The offset disks used allow uninterrupted
sealing and a seal ring that can be replaced without removing the disk. High-performance
butterfly valves come in sizes from NPS 2 to NPS 72 or DN 50 to DN 1800 with ageless or
lugged connections. Bodies are carbon-steel or stainless steel and pressure ratings are up to
class 600 or PN 100. With their very tight shutoff and heavy-duty construction, these valves are
suitable for many process applications
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 Digital Positioners Limit Switches Solenoid Valves

There is a general trend toward greater use of digital valve controllers on control valves for
the following reasons: ❖ Electrical position switches are often ❖ Small, solenoid-operated electric
incorporated on control valves to provide valves are often used in a variety of
▪ Reduced cost of loop commissioning that includes installation and calibration.
the operation of alarms, signal lights, relays, on-off or switching applications with
▪ Using diagnostics maintain loop performance levels. or solenoid valves when the control-valve control valves. They provide
▪ By reducing the process variability, process control is improved. position reaches a predetermined point. equipment override, failure-mode
▪ Offsets the decreasing mechanical skill base of instrument technicians. These switches can be either integrated, interlock of two valves, or switching
fully adjustable units with multiple switches from one instrument line to another. A
The following features of digital valve controllers create most value addition to the users:
or stand-alone switches and trip equipment. typical application involves a normally
▪ Automatic configuration and calibration: The ability to configure the system by Keep harsh environmental conditions in open solenoid valve, which allows
automatic means and ability to calibrate the system easily reduces the cost of consideration while selecting limit switches positioner output to pass directly to the
engineering and cost of maintenance. to assure functionality over time. actuator.
▪ Valve diagnostics: The valve diagnostics is important information for troubleshooting ❖ On loss of electric power, the solenoid
the issues in the eld. The digital valve positioners can provide the diagnostics valve closes the port to the valve
information to the DCS, or to the special software tools or handheld communicators. positioner and bleed pressure from the
This information can be used to assess the health and further action can be taken very diaphragm case to the control valve,
easily allowing it to achieve its fail position.

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Electropneumatic Transducers Position Transmitters Manual Hand Wheels

❖ Electronic position transmitters are ❖ A variety of actuator accessories

Electropneumatic transducers are devices that convert an electronic input available that send either analog or are available which allow for
into a proportional pneumatic output signal. Electropneumatic transducers digital electronic output signals to manual override in the event of
are used in electronic control loops to help operate pneumatic control control-room devices. The instrument signal failure or lack of signal
valves. Most transducers convert a standard 4–20 mA signal to a 3–15 psig senses the position of the valve and previous to start-up. Nearly all
(0.2–1.0 bar) pneumatic output. Devices are also available that can respond provides a discrete or proportional actuator styles have available
to digital signals and nonstandard analog inputs. The transducer function is output signal. Electrical position either gear-style or screw-style
sometimes included with the valve positioner. If the transducer is included, switches are often included in these manual override wheels. In many
the device is known as an electropneumatic positioner, where the input is an transmitters cases, in addition to providing
electronic signal, and the output is position. override capability, these hand
wheels can be used as adjustable
position or travel stops.

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Volume Booster Trip Valves

❖ The volume booster is normally used in ❖ The trip valves are pressure sensing in
control-valve actuators to increase the nature and are required if a special
stroking speed. These pneumatic devices valve action is required in case of
have a separate supply pressure and problems in the supply pressure. These
deliver a higher-volume output signal to valves sense the supply pressure
move actuators rapidly to their desired getting reduced or no supply pressure
positions. Special booster designs are also
available for use with positioners. These
and cause the actuator to force the
valve to specific position such as open,
Calibration Procedures of
devices incorporate a dead-band feature to
adjust their response and eliminate
close or last position. The valve
operation is regained back once the Control Valves
instabilities. This booster, therefore, permits supply pressure is resumed. Pneumatic
high actuator stroking speeds without volume tanks provide the auxiliary
degrading the steady-state accuracy power to actuator action in case of trip
provided by positioners in the loop. valve operation.

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 Pressure to Current Transmitter (PIT)
Calibrating Pressure
1. Connect the calibrator to the instrument under test as shown in Figure.
2. Press button appropriate for current (upper display). If required, press appropriate button
again to activate loop power.
3. If necessary, press source mode button.
4. Zero the pressure module.
5. Perform checks at 0% and 100% of span and tabulate the readings “As Found” values.
6. Adjust the transmitter as necessary to minimize the deviation of As Found value and actual
Thank you for your attention!
value.
7. Repeat step 6 and tabulate the reading “As Left” values. If error % is within the range. Then
the calibration is performed successfully. If not repeat steps 6 and 7 until error % is within
the specified range

Current to pressure calibration setup

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Pressure to Current Transmitter (PIT)

Calibration Procedure
❖There are two options as shown in Figure 6.15—current to pressure calibration setup for
monitoring the output of the IPT. The input current can be measured by connecting a
multimeter (current mode) in series with the input terminals as shown by M1. The same
can be done by connecting test pins across the multimeter with less than 10Ω impedance
(+T and –T) as indicated by M2.
1. For zero correction, connect the current source to the input terminals. Set the input
current to be 4 mA.
2. Connect the pressure gauge to measure the input supply pressure. Connect the
filtered clean air supply to the port allocated. Please make sure that the pneumatic
connections are made with no leakages.
3. Measure the pressure in the gauge and it should be 3 psi for the unit connected
with the input of 4 mA.
4. The deviations from the above readings needs to be recorded and adjusted by the
potentiometers or using the digital communication commands based on the type of
the instrument.
5. The deviation in the output pressure (e.g 15 psig for a 3—15 psig unit) is corrected
by the span potentiometer or digital commands from the communicators based on
the Control Valves 6.37 type of instruments. Note that sometimes the adjustments
are not performed if the deviations are not more than certain threshold.
6. Repeat steps 1 through 5 (as applicable) until no further adjustments are required.

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Pressure to Current Transmitter (PIT)

List of equipment for
calibration

Equipment Characteristics Purposes

Adjustable current 0–50 mA output Simulate input signal

Source DC
Accuracy to +0.05% Measure input signal
milliammeter

Instrument air supply Filtered Air supply

Air supply pressure Measure air supply

Accurate to +2%
gauge pressure
Output pressure Measure output
Accurate to +0.1 %
gauge pressure
Must have 2 mm
Easy access to input
Phone tip probes diameters
signal (optional)
tips, etc.
For IPT with optional Easy monitoring of
Pneumatic test
test output pressure
coupler
Flowchart for the calibration jacks (optional) Flowchart for the calibration
of IP converter Provide standard of PI converter
Load Volume of 7.5 in3
load for testing

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