Capacitive Reactance

In the RC Network tutorial we saw that when a DC voltage is applied to a capacitor, the
capacitor itself draws a charging current from the supply and charges up to a value equal to
the applied voltage. Likewise, when the supply voltage is reduced the charge stored in the
capacitor also reduces and the capacitor discharges.

In an AC circuit in which the applied voltage signal is continually changing from a positive to
a negative polarity at a rate determined by the frequency of the supply, as in the case of a sine
wave voltage, for example. The capacitor is either being charged or discharged on a
continuous basis at a rate determined by the frequency. As the capacitor charges or
discharges, a current flows through it which is restricted by the internal resistance of the
capacitor. This internal resistance is commonly known as Capacitive Reactance and is given
the symbol XC in Ohms.

Unlike resistance which has a fixed value, ie 100Ωs, 1kΩ, 10kΩ etc (this is because
resistance obeys Ohms Law), Capacitive Reactance varies with frequency so any variation
in frequency will have an effect on the capacitors, "capacitive reactance" value. As the
frequency applied to the capacitor increases, its effect is to decrease its reactance (measured
in ohms). Likewise as the frequency across the capacitor decreases its reactance value
increases. This variation is called the capacitors complex impedance.

Complex impedance exists because the electrons in the form of an electrical charge on the
capacitor plates, pass from one plate to the other more rapidly with respect to the varying
frequency. As the frequency increases, the capacitor passes more charge across the plates in a
given time resulting in a greater current flow through the capacitor appearing as if the internal
resistance of the capacitor has decreased. Therefore, a capacitor connected to a circuit that
changes over a given range of frequencies can be said to be "Frequency Dependant".

Capacitive Reactance has the electrical symbol "Xc" and has units measured in Ohms the
same as resistance, ( R ). It is calculated using the following formula:

Capacitive Reactance

Capacitive Reactance Formula

Where:

Xc = Capacitive Reactance in Ohms, (Ω)

 π (pi) = 3.142 or 22/7

ƒ = Frequency in Hertz, (Hz)

C = Capacitance in Farads, (F)

Example No1

Calculate the capacitive reactance of a 220nF capacitor at a frequency of 1kHz and again at
20kHz.

At a frequency of 1kHz,

Again at a frequency of 20kHz,

where: ƒ = frequency in Hertz and C = capacitance in Farads

It can be seen that as the frequency applied to our 220nF capacitor increases from 1kHz to
20kHz, its reactance decreases from approx 723Ωs to just 36Ωs. For any given value of
capacitance the reactance of a capacitor can be plotted against the frequency as shown below.

Capacitive Reactance against Frequency

By re-arranging the reactance formula above, we can also find at what frequency a capacitor
will have a particular capacitive reactance ( XC ) value.

Example No1 - At which frequency would a 2.2uF Capacitor have a reactance value of
200Ωs?

Or we can find the value of the capacitor in Farads by knowing the applied frequency and its
reactance value at that frequency.

Example No2 - What will be the value of a Capacitor in farads when it has a capacitive
reactance of 200Ω and is connected to a 50Hz supply.

We can see from the above examples that a capacitor when connected to a variable frequency
supply, acts a bit like a "frequency controlled variable resistor". At very low frequencies,
such as 1Hz our 220nF capacitor has a high capacitive reactance value of approx 723KΩs
(giving the effect of an open circuit). At very high frequencies such as 1Mhz the capacitor
has a low capacitive reactance value of just 0.7 ohms (giving the effect of a short circuit). At
zero frequency or steady state DC the capacitor has infinite reactance looking more like an
"open-circuit" between the plates and blocking any flow of current through it.

Voltage Divider Revision

We remember from our tutorial about Resistors in Series that different voltages can appear
across each resistor depending upon the value of the resistance and that a voltage divider
circuit has the ability to divide its supply voltage by the ratio of R2/(R1+R2). Therefore,
when R1 = R2 the output voltage will be half the value of the input voltage. Likewise, any
value of R2 greater or less than R1 will result in a proportional change to the output voltage.
Consider the circuit below.

Voltage Divider
We now know that a capacitors reactance, Xc (its complex impedance) value changes with
respect to frequency. If we were to change resistor R2 above for a capacitor, the voltage drop
across the two components would change as the frequency changed because of the reactance
of the capacitor.

The impedance of resistor R1 does not change with frequency, as its a resistor and are
therefore unaffected by frequency change. Then the voltage across resistor R1 and therefore
the output voltage is determined by the capacitive reactance of the capacitor at a given
frequency resulting in a frequency-dependent RC voltage divider circuit. With this idea in
mind, passive Low Pass Filters and High Pass Filters can be constructed by replacing one
of the voltage divider resistors with a suitable capacitor as shown.

Low Pass Filter

High Pass Filter

The property of Capacitive Reactance, makes capacitors ideal for use in AC filter circuits or
in DC power supply smoothing circuits to reduce the effects of any unwanted Ripple Voltage
as the capacitor applies an short circuit signal path to any unwanted frequency signals on the
output terminals.

Capacitive Reactance Summary

So, we can summarize the behaviour of a capacitor in a variable frequency circuit as being a
sort of frequency controlled resistor that has a high capacitive reactance value (open circuit
condition) at very low frequencies and low capacitive reactance value (short circuit
condition) at very high frequencies as shown in the graph above.
It is important to remember these two conditions and in our next tutorial about the Passive
Low Pass Filter, we will look at the use of Capacitive reactance to block any unwanted high
frequency signals while allowing only low frequency signals to pass.

Low Pass Filter Introduction

Basically, an electrical filter is a circuit that can be designed to modify, reshape or reject all
unwanted frequencies of an electrical signal and accept or pass only those signals wanted by
the circuits designer. In other words they "filter-out" unwanted signals and an ideal filter will
separate and pass sinusoidal input signals based upon their frequency.

In low frequency applications (up to 100kHz), passive filters are generally constructed using
simple RC (Resistor-Capacitor) networks, while higher frequency filters (above 100kHz) are
usually made from RLC (Resistor-Inductor-Capacitor) components. Passive filters are made
up of passive components such as resistors, capacitors and inductors and have no amplifying
elements (transistors, op-amps, etc) so have no signal gain, therefore their output level is
always less than the input.

Filters are so named according to the frequency range of signals that they allow to pass
through them, while blocking or "attenuating" the rest. The most commonly used filter
designs are the:

1. The Low Pass Filter – the low pass filter only allows low frequency signals from 0Hz to its
cut-off frequency, ƒc point to pass while blocking those any higher.

2. The High Pass Filter – the high pass filter only allows high frequency signals from its cut-
off frequency, ƒc point and higher to infinity to pass through while blocking those any lower.

3. The Band Pass Filter – the band pass filter allows signals falling within a certain frequency
band setup between two points to pass through while blocking both the lower and higher
frequencies either side of this frequency band.

Simple First-order passive filters (1st order) can be made by connecting together a single
resistor and a single capacitor in series across an input signal, (Vin ) with the output of the
filter, ( Vout ) taken from the junction of these two components. Depending on which way
around we connect the resistor and the capacitor with regards to the output signal determines
the type of filter construction resulting in either a Low Pass Filter or a High Pass Filter.

As the function of any filter is to allow signals of a given band of frequencies to pass
unaltered while attenuating or weakening all others that are not wanted, we can define the
amplitude response characteristics of an ideal filter by using an ideal frequency response
curve of the four basic filter types as shown.
Ideal Filter Response Curves

Filters can be divided into two distinct types: active filters and passive filters. Active filters
contain amplifying devices to increase signal strength while passive do not contain
amplifying devices to strengthen the signal. As there are two passive components within a
passive filter design the output signal has a smaller amplitude than its corresponding input
signal, therefore passive RC filters attenuate the signal and have a gain of less than one,
(unity).

A Low Pass Filter can be a combination of capacitance, inductance or resistance intended to

produce high attenuation above a specified frequency and little or no attenuation below that
frequency. The frequency at which the transition occurs is called the "cutoff" frequency. The
simplest low pass filters consist of a resistor and capacitor but more sophisticated low pass
filters have a combination of series inductors and parallel capacitors. In this tutorial we will
look at the simplest type, a passive two component RC low pass filter.

The Low Pass Filter

A simple passive RC Low Pass Filter or LPF, can be easily made by connecting together in
series a single Resistor with a single Capacitor as shown below. In this type of filter
arrangement the input signal ( Vin ) is applied to the series combination (both the Resistor
and Capacitor together) but the output signal ( Vout ) is taken across the capacitor only. This
type of filter is known generally as a "first-order filter" or "one-pole filter", why first-order or
single-pole?, because it has only "one" reactive component, the capacitor, in the circuit.

RC Low Pass Filter Circuit

As mentioned previously in the Capacitive Reactance tutorial, the reactance of a capacitor

varies inversely with frequency, while the value of the resistor remains constant as the
frequency changes. At low frequencies the capacitive reactance, ( Xc ) of the capacitor will
be very large compared to the resistive value of the resistor, R and as a result the voltage
across the capacitor, Vc will also be large while the voltage drop across the resistor, Vr will
be much lower. At high frequencies the reverse is true with Vc being small and Vr being
large.

While the circuit above is that of an RC Low Pass Filter circuit, it can also be classed as a
frequency variable potential divider circuit similar to the one we looked at in the Resistors
tutorial. In that tutorial we used the following equation to calculate the output voltage for two
single resistors connected in series.

We also know that the capacitive reactance of a capacitor in an AC circuit is given as:

Opposition to current flow in an AC circuit is called impedance, symbol Z and for a series
circuit consisting of a single resistor in series with a single capacitor, the circuit impedance is
calculated as:

Then by substituting our equation for impedance above into the resistive potential divider
equation gives us:

So, by using the potential divider equation of two resistors in series and substituting for
impedance we can calculate the output voltage of an RC Filter for any given frequency.

Example No1
A Low Pass Filter circuit consisting of a resistor of 4k7Ω in series with a capacitor of 47nF
is connected across a 10v sinusoidal supply. Calculate the output voltage ( Vout ) at a
frequency of 100Hz and again at frequency of 10,000Hz or 10kHz.
At a frequency of 100Hz.

At a frequency of 10kHz.

Frequency Response
We can see above, that as the frequency increases from 100Hz to 10kHz, the output voltage
( Vout ) decreases from 9.9v to 0.718v. By plotting the output voltage against the input
frequency, the Frequency Response Curve or Bode Plot function of the low pass filter can
be found, as shown below.

Frequency Response of a 1st-order Low Pass Filter

The Bode Plot shows the Frequency Response of the filter to be nearly flat for low
frequencies and all of the input signal is passed directly to the output, resulting in a gain of
nearly 1, called unity, until it reaches its Cut-off Frequency point ( ƒc ). This is because the
reactance of the capacitor is high at low frequencies and blocks any current flow through the
capacitor.

After this cut-off frequency point the response of the circuit decreases giving a slope of -
20dB/ Decade or (-6dB/Octave) "roll-off" as signals above this frequency become greatly
attenuated, until at very high frequencies the reactance of the capacitor becomes so low that it
gives the effect of a short circuit condition on the output terminals resulting in zero output.

For this type of Low Pass Filter circuit, all the frequencies below this cut-off, ƒc point that
are unaltered with little or no attenuation and are said to be in the filters Pass band zone.
This pass band zone also represents the Bandwidth of the filter. Any signal frequencies
above this point cut-off point are generally said to be in the filters Stop band zone and they
will be greatly attenuated.

This "Cut-off", "Corner" or "Breakpoint" frequency is defined as being the frequency point
where the capacitive reactance and resistance are equal, R = Xc = 4k7Ω. When this occurs
the output signal is attenuated to 70.7% of the input signal value or -3dB (20 log (Vout/Vin))
of the input. Although R = Xc, the output is not half of the input signal. This is because it is
equal to the vector sum of the two and is therefore 0.707 of the input.
As the filter contains a capacitor, the Phase Angle ( Φ ) of the output signal LAGS behind
that of the input and at the -3dB cut-off frequency ( ƒc ) and is -45o out of phase. This is due
to the time taken to charge the plates of the capacitor as the input voltage changes, resulting
in the output voltage (the voltage across the capacitor) "lagging" behind that of the input
signal. The higher the input frequency applied to the filter the more the capacitor lags and the
circuit becomes more and more "out of phase".

The cut-off frequency point and phase shift angle can be found by using the following
equation:

Cut-off Frequency and Phase Shift

Then for our simple example of a "Low Pass Filter" circuit above, the cut-off frequency (ƒc)
is given as 720Hz with an output voltage of 70.7% of the input voltage value and a phase
shift angle of -45o.

Second-order Low Pass Filter

Thus far we have seen that simple first-order RC low pass filters can be made by connecting
a single resistor in series with a single capacitor. This single-pole arrangement gives us a roll-
off slope of -20dB/decade attenuation of frequencies above the cut-off point at ƒ3dB .
However, sometimes in filter circuits this -20dB/decade (-6dB/octave) angle of the slope may
not be enough to remove an unwanted signal then two stages of filtering can be used as
shown.

Second-order Low Pass Filter

The above circuit uses two passive first-order low pass filters connected or "cascaded"
together to form a second-order or two-pole filter network. Therefore we can see that a first-
order low pass filter can be converted into a second-order type by simply adding an
additional RC network to it and the more RC stages we add the higher becomes the order of
the filter. If a number ( n ) of such RC stages are cascaded together, the resulting RC filter
circuit would be known as an "nth-order" filter with a roll-off slope of "n x -20dB/decade".

So for example, a second-order filter would have a slope of -40dB/decade (-12dB/octave), a

fourth-order filter would have a slope of -80dB/decade (-24dB/octave) and so on. This means
that, as the order of the filter is increased, the roll-off slope becomes steeper and the actual
stop band response of the filter approaches its ideal stop band characteristics.

Second-order filters are important and widely used in filter designs because when combined
with first-order filters any higher-order nth-value filters can be designed using them. For
example, a third order low-pass filter is formed by connecting in series or cascading together
a first and a second-order low pass filter.

But there is a downside too cascading together RC filter stages. Although there is no limit to
the order of the filter that can be formed, as the order increases, the gain and accuracy of the
final filter declines. When identical RC filter stages are cascaded together, the output gain at
the required cut-off frequency ( ƒc ) is reduced (attenuated) by an amount in relation to the
number of filter stages used as the roll-off slope increases. We can define the amount of
attenuation at the selected cut-off frequency using the following formula.

Passive Low Pass Filter Gain at ƒc

where "n" is the number of filter stages.

So for a second-order passive low pass filter the gain at the corner frequency ƒc will be equal
to 0.7071 x 0.7071 = 0.5Vin (-6dB), a third-order passive low pass filter will be equal to
0.353Vin (-9dB), fourth-order will be 0.25Vin (-12dB) and so on. The corner frequency, ƒc
for a second-order passive low pass filter is determined by the resistor/capacitor (RC)
combination and is given as.

2nd-Order Filter Corner Frequency

In reality as the filter stage and therefore its roll-off slope increases, the low pass filters -3dB
corner frequency point and therefore its pass band frequency changes from its original
calculated value above by an amount determined by the following equation.

2nd-Order Low Pass Filter -3dB Frequency

where ƒc is the calculated cut-off frequency, n is the filter order and ƒ-3dB is the new -3dB
pass band frequency as a result in the increase of the filters order.

Then the frequency response (bode plot) for a second-order low pass filter assuming the same
-3dB cut-off point would look like:

Frequency Response of a 2nd-order Low Pass Filter

In practice, cascading passive filters together to produce larger-order filters is difficult to

implement accurately as the dynamic impedance of each filter order affects its neighbouring
network. However, to reduce the loading effect we can make the impedance of each
following stage 10x the previous stage, so R2 = 10 x R1 and C2 = 1/10th C1. Second-order
and above filter networks are generally used in the feedback circuits of op-amps, making
what are commonly known as Active Filters or as a phase-shift network in RC Oscillator
circuits.

Low Pass Filter Summary

So to summarize, the Low Pass Filter has a constant output voltage from D.C. (0Hz), up to a
specified Cut-off frequency, ( ƒc ) point. This cut-off frequency point is 0.707 or -3dB ( dB =
-20log Vout/Vin ) of the voltage gain allowed to pass. The frequency range "below" this cut-
off point ƒc is generally known as the Pass Band as the input signal is allowed to pass
through the filter. The frequency range "above" this cut-off point is generally known as the
Stop Band as the input signal is blocked or stopped from passing through.

A simple 1st order low pass filter can be made using a single resistor in series with a single
non-polarized capacitor (or any single reactive component) across an input signal Vin, whilst
the output signal Vout is taken from across the capacitor. The cut-off frequency or -3dB
point, can be found using the formula, ƒc = 1/(2πRC). The phase angle of the output signal at
ƒc and is -45o for a Low Pass Filter.

The gain of the filter or any filter for that matter, is generally expressed in Decibels and is a
function of the output value divided by its corresponding input value and is given as:

Applications of passive Low Pass Filters are in audio amplifiers and speaker systems to direct
the lower frequency bass signals to the larger bass speakers or to reduce any high frequency
noise or "hiss" type distortion. When used like this in audio applications the low pass filter is
sometimes called a "high-cut", or "treble cut" filter.

If we were to reverse the positions of the resistor and capacitor in the circuit so that the output
voltage is now taken from across the resistor, we would have a circuit that produces an output
frequency response curve similar to that of a High Pass Filter, and this is discussed in the
next tutorial.

Time Constant
Until now we have been interested in the frequency response of a low pass filter and that the
filters cut-off frequency ( ƒc ) is the product of the resistance ( R ) and the capacitance ( C )
in the circuit with respect to some specified frequency point and that by altering any one of
the two components alters this cut-off frequency point by either increasing it or decreasing it.

We also know that the phase shift of the circuit lags behind that of the input signal due to the
time required to charge and then discharge the capacitor as the sine wave changes. This
combination of R and C produces a charging and discharging effect on the capacitor known
as its Time Constant ( τ ) of the circuit as seen in the RC Circuit tutorials giving the filter a
response in the time domain.

The time constant, tau ( τ ), is related to the cut-off frequency ƒc as.

or expressed in terms of the cut-off frequency, ƒc as.

The output voltage, Vout depends upon the time constant and the frequency of the input
signal. With a sinusoidal signal that changes smoothly over time, the circuit behaves as a
simple 1st order low pass filter as we have seen above. But what if we were to change the
input signal to that of a "square wave" shaped ON/OFF type signal that has an almost vertical
step input, what would happen to our filter circuit now. The output response of the circuit
would change dramatically and produce another type of circuit known commonly as an
Integrator.

The RC Integrator
The Integrator is basically a low pass filter circuit operating in the time domain that converts
a square wave "step" response input signal into a triangular shaped waveform output as the
capacitor charges and discharges. A Triangular waveform consists of alternate but equal,
positive and negative ramps. As seen below, if the RC time constant is long compared to the
time period of the input waveform the resultant output waveform will be triangular in shape
and the higher the input frequency the lower will be the output amplitude compared to that of
the input.

The RC Integrator Circuit

This then makes this type of circuit ideal for converting one type of electronic signal to
another for use in wave-generating or wave-shaping circuits.

High Pass Filters

A High Pass Filter or HPF, is the exact opposite to that of the previously seen Low Pass
filter circuit, as now the two components have been interchanged with the output signal
( Vout ) being taken from across the resistor as shown.

Where the low pass filter only allowed signals to pass below its cut-off frequency point, ƒc,
the passive high pass filter circuit as its name implies, only passes signals above the selected
cut-off point, ƒc eliminating any low frequency signals from the waveform. Consider the
circuit below.

The High Pass Filter Circuit

In this circuit arrangement, the reactance of the capacitor is very high at low frequencies so
the capacitor acts like an open circuit and blocks any input signals at Vin until the cut-off
frequency point ( ƒc ) is reached. Above this cut-off frequency point the reactance of the
capacitor has reduced sufficiently as to now act more like a short circuit allowing all of the
input signal to pass directly to the output as shown below in the High Pass Frequency
Response Curve.

Frequency Response of a 1st Order High Pass Filter.

The Bode Plot or Frequency Response Curve above for a High Pass filter is the exact
opposite to that of a low pass filter. Here the signal is attenuated or damped at low
frequencies with the output increasing at +20dB/Decade (6dB/Octave) until the frequency
reaches the cut-off point ( ƒc ) where again R = Xc. It has a response curve that extends down
from infinity to the cut-off frequency, where the output voltage amplitude is 1/√2 = 70.7% of
the input signal value or -3dB (20 log (Vout/Vin)) of the input value.

Also we can see that the phase angle ( Φ ) of the output signal LEADS that of the input and is
equal to +45o at frequency ƒc. The frequency response curve for a high pass filter implies that
the filter can pass all signals out to infinity. However in practice, the high pass filter response
does not extend to infinity but is limited by the electrical characteristics of the components
used.

The cut-off frequency point for a first order high pass filter can be found using the same
equation as that of the low pass filter, but the equation for the phase shift is modified slightly
to account for the positive phase angle as shown below.

Cut-off Frequency and Phase Shift

The circuit gain, Av which is given as Vout/Vin (magnitude) and is calculated as:

Example No1.

Calculate the cut-off or "breakpoint" frequency ( ƒc ) for a simple high pass filter consisting
of an 82pF capacitor connected in series with a 240kΩ resistor.

Second-order Low Pass Filter

Again as with low pass filters, high pass filter stages can be cascaded together to form a
second-order (two-pole) filter as shown.

Second-order High Pass Filter

The above circuit uses two first-order high pass filters connected or cascaded together to form
a second-order or two-pole filter network. Then a first-order high pass filter can be converted
into a second-order type by simply using an additional RC network, the same as for the 2nd-
order low pass filter. The resulting second-order high pass filter circuit will have a slope of -
40dB/decade (-12dB/octave).

As with the low pass filter, the cut-off frequency, ƒc is determined by both the resistors and
capacitors as follows.

High Pass Filter Summary

The High Pass Filter is the exact opposite to the low pass filter. This filter has no output
voltage from DC (0Hz), up to a specified cut-off frequency ( ƒc ) point. This lower cut-off
frequency point is 70.7% or -3dB (dB = -20log Vout/Vin) of the voltage gain allowed to
pass. The frequency range "below" this cut-off point ƒc is generally known as the Stop Band
while the frequency range "above" this cut-off point is generally known as the Pass Band.

The cut-off frequency, corner frequency or -3dB point of a high pass filter can be found using
the standard formula of: ƒc = 1/(2πRC). The phase angle of the resulting output signal at ƒc is
+45o. Generally, the high pass filter is less distorting than its equivalent low pass filter due to
the higher operating frequencies.

A very common application of a passive high pass filter, is in audio amplifiers as a coupling
capacitor between two audio amplifier stages and in speaker systems to direct the higher
frequency signals to the smaller "tweeter" type speakers while blocking the lower bass
signals or are also used as filters to reduce any low frequency noise or "rumble" type
distortion. When used like this in audio applications the high pass filter is sometimes called a
"low-cut", or "bass cut" filter.
The output voltage Vout depends upon the time constant and the frequency of the input signal
as seen previously. With an AC sinusoidal signal applied to the circuit it behaves as a simple
1st Order high pass filter. But if we change the input signal to that of a "square wave" shaped
signal that has an almost vertical step input, the response of the circuit changes dramatically
and produces a circuit known commonly as an Differentiator.

The RC Differentiator
Up until now the input waveform to the filter has been assumed to be sinusoidal or that of a
sine wave consisting of a fundamental signal and some harmonics operating in the frequency
domain giving us a frequency domain response for the filter. However, if we feed the High
Pass Filter with a Square Wave signal operating in the time domain giving an impulse or
step response input, the output waveform will consist of short duration pulse or spikes as
shown.

The RC Differentiator Circuit

Each cycle of the square wave input waveform produces two spikes at the output, one
positive and one negative and whose amplitude is equal to that of the input. The rate of decay
of the spikes depends upon the time constant, ( RC ) value of both components, ( t = R x C )
and the value of the input frequency. The output pulses resemble more and more the shape of
the input signal as the frequency increases.

Band Pass Filters

The cut-off frequency or ƒc point in a simple RC passive filter can be accurately controlled
using just a single resistor in series with a non-polarized capacitor, and depending upon
which way around they are connected either a low pass or a high pass filter is obtained.

One simple use for these types of filters is in audio amplifier applications or circuits such as
in loudspeaker crossover filters or pre-amplifier tone controls. Sometimes it is necessary to
only pass a certain range of frequencies that do not begin at 0Hz, (DC) or end at some high
frequency point but are within a certain frequency band, either narrow or wide.

By connecting or "cascading" together a single Low Pass Filter circuit with a High Pass
Filter circuit, we can produce another type of passive RC filter that passes a selected range or
"band" of frequencies that can be either narrow or wide while attenuating all those outside of
this range. This new type of passive filter arrangement produces a frequency selective filter
known commonly as a Band Pass Filter or BPF for short.

Band Pass Filter Circuit

Unlike a low pass filter that only pass signals of a low frequency range or a high pass filter
which pass signals of a higher frequency range, a Band Pass Filters passes signals within a
certain "band" or "spread" of frequencies without distorting the input signal or introducing
extra noise. This band of frequencies can be any width and is commonly known as the filters
Bandwidth. Bandwidth is defined as the frequency range between two specified frequency
cut-off points ( ƒc ), that are 3dB below the maximum centre or resonant peak while
attenuating or weakening the others outside of these two points.

Then for widely spread frequencies, we can simply define the term "bandwidth", BW as
being the difference between the lower cut-off frequency ( ƒcLOWER ) and the higher cut-off
frequency ( ƒcHIGHER ) points. In other words, BW = ƒH - ƒL. Clearly for a pass band filter to
function correctly, the cut-off frequency of the low pass filter must be higher than the cut-off
frequency for the high pass filter.

The "ideal" Band Pass Filter can also be used to isolate or filter out certain frequencies that
lie within a particular band of frequencies, for example, noise cancellation. Band pass filters
are known generally as second-order filters, (two-pole) because they have "two" reactive
component, the capacitors, within their circuit design. One capacitor in the low pass circuit
and another capacitor in the high pass circuit.

Frequency Response of a 2nd Order Band Pass Filter.

The Bode Plot or frequency response curve above shows the characteristics of the band pass
filter. Here the signal is attenuated at low frequencies with the output increasing at a slope of
+20dB/Decade (6dB/Octave) until the frequency reaches the "lower cut-off" point ƒL. At this
frequency the output voltage is again 1/√2 = 70.7% of the input signal value or -3dB (20 log
(Vout/Vin)) of the input.

The output continues at maximum gain until it reaches the "upper cut-off" point ƒH where the
output decreases at a rate of -20dB/Decade (6dB/Octave) attenuating any high frequency
signals. The point of maximum output gain is generally the geometric mean of the two -3dB
value between the lower and upper cut-off points and is called the "Centre Frequency" or
"Resonant Peak" value ƒr. This geometric mean value is calculated as being ƒr 2 =
ƒ(UPPER) x ƒ(LOWER).

A band pass filter is regarded as a second-order (two-pole) type filter because it has "two"
reactive components within its circuit structure, then the phase angle will be twice that of the
previously seen first-order filters, ie 180o. The phase angle of the output signal LEADS that
of the input by +90o up to the centre or resonant frequency, ƒr point were it becomes "zero"
degrees (0o) or "in-phase" and then changes to LAG the input by -90o as the output frequency
increases.

The upper and lower cut-off frequency points for a band pass filter can be found using the
same formula as that for both the low and high pass filters, For example.
Then clearly, the width of the pass band of the filter can be controlled by the positioning of
the two cut-off frequency points of the two filters.

Example No1.
A second-order band pass filter is to be constructed using RC components that will only
allow a range of frequencies to pass above 1kHz (1,000Hz) and below 30kHz (30,000Hz).
Assuming that both the resistors have values of 10kΩ´s, calculate the values of the two
capacitors required.

The High Pass Filter Stage.

The value of the capacitor C1 required to give a cut-off frequency ƒL of 1kHz with a resistor
value of 10kΩ is calculated as:

Then, the values of R1 and C1 required for the high pass stage to give a cut-off frequency of
1.0kHz are,
R1 = 10kΩ´s and C1 = 15nF.

The Low Pass Filter Stage.

The value of the capacitor C2 required to give a cut-off frequency ƒH of 30kHz with a resistor
value of 10kΩ is calculated as:

Then, the values of R2 and C2 required for the low pass stage to give a cut-off frequency of
30kHz are,
R = 10kΩ´s and C = 510pF. However, the nearest preferred value of the calculated capacitor
value of 510pF is 560pF so this is used instead.

With the values of both the resistances R1 and R2 given as 10kΩ, and the two values of the
capacitors C1 and C2 found for both the high pass and low pass filters as 15nF and 560pF
respectively, then the circuit for our simple passive Band Pass Filter is given as.

Completed Band Pass Filter Circuit

Resonant Frequency.
We can also calculate the "Resonant" or "Centre Frequency" (ƒr) point of the band pass filter
were the output gain is at its maximum or peak value. This peak value is not the arithmetic
average of the upper and lower -3dB cut-off points as you might expect but is in fact the
"geometric" or mean value. This geometric mean value is calculated as being ƒr 2 =
ƒc(UPPER) x ƒc(LOWER) for example:

Centre Frequency Equation

Where, ƒr is the resonant or centre frequency

ƒL is the lower -3dB cut-off frequency point

ƒH is the upper -3db cut-off frequency point

and in our simple example above, the calculated cut-off frequencies were found to be ƒL =
1,060 Hz and ƒH = 28,420 Hz using the filter values.

Then by substituting these values into the above equation gives a central resonant frequency
of:

Band Pass Filter Summary

A Band pass Filter can be made by cascading together a Low Pass Filter and a High Pass
Filter with the frequency range between the lower and upper -3dB cut-off points being know
as the filters "Bandwidth". The centre or resonant frequency point is the geometric mean of
the lower and upper cut-off points. At this centre frequency the output signal is at its
maximum and the phase shift of the output signal is the same as the input signal.
The amplitude of the output signal from a band pass filter or any passive RC filter for that
matter, will always be less than that of the input signal. In other words a passive filter is also
an attenuator giving a voltage gain of less than 1 (Unity). To provide an output signal with a
voltage gain greater than unity, some form of amplification is required within the design of
the circuit.

A Passive Band Pass Filter is classed as a second-order type filter because it has two
reactive components within its design, the capacitors. It is made up from two single RC filter
circuits that are each first-order filters themselves.

If more filters are cascaded together the resulting circuit will be known as an "nth-order" filter
where the "n" stands for the number of individual reactive components and therefore poles
within the filter circuit. For example, filters can be a 2nd-order, 4th-order, 10th-order, etc. The
higher the filters order the steeper will be the slope at n times -20dB/decade. However, a
single capacitor value made by combining together two or more individual capacitors is still
one capacitor.

Our example above shows the output frequency response curve for an "ideal" band pass filter
with constant gain in the pass band and zero gain in the stop bands. In practice the frequency
response of this Band Pass Filter circuit would not be the same as the input reactance of the
high pass circuit would affect the frequency response of the low pass circuit (components
connected in series or parallel) and vice versa. One way of overcoming this would be to
provide some form of electrical isolation between the two filter circuits as shown below.

Buffering Individual Filter Stages

One way of combining amplification and filtering into the same circuit would be to use an
Operational Amplifier or Op-amp, and examples of these are given in the Operational
Amplifier section. In the next tutorial we will look at filter circuits which use an operational
amplifier within their design to not only to introduce gain but provide isolation between
stages. These types of filter arrangements are generally known as Active Filters.

Active Filters
In the RC Passive Filter tutorials, we saw how a basic first-order filter circuits, such as the
low pass and the high pass filters can be made using just a single resistor in series with a non-
polarized capacitor connected across a sinusoidal input signal. We also noticed that the main
disadvantage of passive filters is that the amplitude of the output signal is less than that of the
input signal, ie, the gain is never greater than unity and that the load impedance affects the
filters characteristics. With passive filter circuits containing multiple stages, this loss in signal
amplitude called "Attenuation" can become quiet severe. One way of restoring or controlling
this loss of signal is by using amplification through the use of Active Filters.

As their name implies, Active Filters contain active components such as operational
amplifiers, transistors or FET's within their circuit design. They draw their power from an
external power source and use it to boost or amplify the output signal. Filter amplification can
also be used to either shape or alter the frequency response of the filter circuit by producing a
more selective output response, making the output bandwidth of the filter more narrower or
even wider. Then the main difference between a "passive filter" and an "active filter" is
amplification.

An active filter generally uses an operational amplifier (op-amp) within its design and in the
Operational Amplifier tutorial we saw that an Op-amp has a high input impedance, a low
output impedance and a voltage gain determined by the resistor network within its feedback
loop. Unlike a passive high pass filter which has in theory an infinite high frequency
response, the maximum frequency response of an active filter is limited to the
Gain/Bandwidth product (or open loop gain) of the operational amplifier being used. Still,
active filters are generally more easier to design than passive filters, they produce good
performance characteristics, very good accuracy with a steep roll-off and low noise when
used with a good circuit design.

Active Low Pass Filter

The most common and easily understood active filter is the Active Low Pass Filter. Its
principle of operation and frequency response is exactly the same as those for the previously
seen passive filter, the only difference this time is that it uses an op-amp for amplification and
gain control. The simplest form of a low pass active filter is to connect an inverting or non-
inverting amplifier, the same as those discussed in the Op-amp tutorial, to the basic RC low
pass filter circuit as shown.

First Order Active Low Pass Filter

This first-order low pass active filter, consists simply of a passive RC filter stage providing a
low frequency path to the input of a non-inverting operational amplifier. The amplifier is
configured as a voltage-follower (Buffer) giving it a DC gain of one, Av = +1 or unity gain as
opposed to the previous passive RC filter which has a DC gain of less than unity.

The advantage of this configuration is that the op-amps high input impedance prevents
excessive loading on the filters output while its low output impedance prevents the filters cut-
off frequency point from being affected by changes in the impedance of the load.

While this configuration provides good stability to the filter, its main disadvantage is that it
has no voltage gain above one. However, although the voltage gain is unity the power gain is
very high as its output impedance is much lower than its input impedance. If a voltage gain
greater than one is required we can use the following filter circuit.

Active Low Pass Filter with Amplification

The frequency response of the circuit will be the same as that for the passive RC filter, except
that the amplitude of the output is increased by the pass band gain, A F of the amplifier. For a
non-inverting amplifier circuit, the magnitude of the voltage gain for the filter is given as a
function of the feedback resistor ( R2 ) divided by its corresponding input resistor ( R1 ) value
and is given as:

Therefore, the gain of an active low pass filter as a function of frequency will be:

Gain of a first-order low pass filter

Where:

AF = the pass band gain of the filter, (1 + R2/R1)

ƒ = the frequency of the input signal in Hertz, (Hz)

ƒc = the cut-off frequency in Hertz, (Hz)

Thus, the operation of a low pass active filter can be verified from the frequency gain
equation above as:

1. At very low frequencies, ƒ < ƒc,

2. At the cut-off frequency, ƒ = ƒc,

3. At very high frequencies, ƒ > ƒc,

Thus, the Active Low Pass Filter has a constant gain AF from 0Hz to the high frequency cut-
off point, ƒC. At ƒC the gain is 0.707AF, and after ƒC it decreases at a constant rate as the
frequency increases. That is, when the frequency is increased tenfold (one decade), the
voltage gain is divided by 10. In other words, the gain decreases 20dB (= 20log 10) each time
the frequency is increased by 10. When dealing with filter circuits the magnitude of the pass
band gain of the circuit is generally expressed in decibels or dB as a function of the voltage
gain, and this is defined as:

Magnitude of Voltage Gain in (dB)

Example No1
Design a non-inverting active low pass filter circuit that has a gain of ten at low frequencies,
a high frequency cut-off or corner frequency of 159Hz and an input impedance of 10KΩ.

The voltage gain of a non-inverting operational amplifier is given

as:

Assume a value for resistor R1 of 1kΩ rearranging the formula above gives a value for R2
of

then, for a voltage gain of 10, R1 = 1kΩ and R2 = 9kΩ. However, a 9kΩ resistor does not
exist so the next preferred value of 9k1Ω is used instead.

converting this voltage gain to a decibel dB value gives:

The cut-off or corner frequency (ƒc) is given as being 159Hz with an input impedance of
10kΩ. This cut-off frequency can be found by using the formula:

where ƒc = 159Hz and R = 10kΩ.

then, by rearranging the above formula we can find the value for capacitor C as:

Then the final circuit along with its frequency response is given below as:

Low Pass Filter Circuit.

Frequency Response Curve

If the external impedance connected to the input of the circuit changes, this change will also
affect the corner frequency of the filter (components connected in series or parallel). One way
of avoiding this is to place the capacitor in parallel with the feedback resistor R2. The value
of the capacitor will change slightly from being 100nF to 110nF to take account of the 9k1Ω
resistor and the formula used to calculate the cut-off corner frequency is the same as that used
for the RC passive low pass filter.

An example of the new Active Low Pass Filter circuit is given as.

Simplified non-inverting amplifier filter circuit

Equivalent inverting amplifier filter circuit

Applications of Active Low Pass Filters are in audio amplifiers, equalizers or speaker
systems to direct the lower frequency bass signals to the larger bass speakers or to reduce any
high frequency noise or "hiss" type distortion. When used like this in audio applications the
active low pass filter is sometimes called a "Bass Boost" filter.

Second-order Low Pass Active Filter

As with the passive filter, a first-order low pass active filter can be converted into a second-
order low pass filter simply by using an additional RC network in the input path. The
frequency response of the second-order low pass filter is identical to that of the first-order
type except that the stop band roll-off will be twice the first-order filters at 40dB/decade
(12dB/octave). Therefore, the design steps required of the second-order active low pass filter
are the same.

Second-order Active Low Pass Filter Circuit

When cascading together filter circuits to form higher-order filters, the overall gain of the
filter is equal to the product of each stage. For example, the gain of one stage may be 10 and
the gain of the second stage may be 32 and the gain of a third stage may be 100. Then the
overall gain will be 32,000, (10 x 32 x 100) as shown below.

Cascading Voltage Gain

Second-order (two-pole) active filters are important because higher-order filters can be
designed using them. By cascading together first and second-order filters, filters with an
order value, either odd or even up to any value can be constructed. In the next tutorial about
filters, we will see that Active High Pass Filters, can be constructed by reversing the
positions of the resistor and capacitor in the circuit.
Active High Pass Filters
The basic electrical operation of an Active High Pass Filter (HPF) is exactly the same as we
saw for its equivalent RC passive high pass filter circuit, except this time the circuit has an
operational amplifier or op-amp included within its filter design providing amplification and
gain control. Like the previous active low pass filter circuit, the simplest form of an active
high pass filter is to connect a standard inverting or non-inverting operational amplifier to the
basic RC high pass passive filter circuit as shown.

First Order Active High Pass Filter

Technically, there is no such thing as an active high pass filter. Unlike Passive High Pass
Filters which have an "infinite" frequency response, the maximum pass band frequency
response of an active high pass filter is limited by the open-loop characteristics or bandwidth
of the operational amplifier being used, making them appear as if they are band pass filters
with a high frequency cut-off determined by the selection of op-amp and gain.

In the Operational Amplifier tutorial we saw that the maximum frequency response of an op-
amp is limited to the Gain/Bandwidth product or open loop voltage gain ( A V ) of the
operational amplifier being used giving it a bandwidth limitation, where the closed loop
response of the op amp intersects the open loop response.

A commonly available operational amplifier such as the uA741 has a typical "open-loop"
(without any feedback) DC voltage gain of about 100dB maximum reducing at a roll off rate
of -20dB/Decade (-6db/Octave) as the input frequency increases. The gain of the uA741
reduces until it reaches unity gain, (0dB) or its "transition frequency" ( ƒt ) which is about
1MHz. This causes the op-amp to have a frequency response curve very similar to that of a
first-order low pass filter and this is shown below.

Frequency response curve of a typical Operational Amplifier.

Then the performance of a "high pass filter" at high frequencies is limited by this unity gain
crossover frequency which determines the overall bandwidth of the open-loop amplifier. The
gain-bandwidth product of the op-amp starts from around 100kHz for small signal amplifiers
up to about 1GHz for high-speed digital video amplifiers and op-amp based active filters can
achieve very good accuracy and performance provided that low tolerance resistors and
capacitors are used.

Under normal circumstances the maximum pass band required for a closed loop active high
pass or band pass filter is well below that of the maximum open-loop transition frequency.
However, when designing active filter circuits it is important to choose the correct op-amp
for the circuit as the loss of high frequency signals may result in signal distortion.

Active High Pass Filter

A first-order (single-pole) Active High Pass Filter as its name implies, attenuates low
frequencies and passes high frequency signals. It consists simply of a passive filter section
followed by a non-inverting operational amplifier. The frequency response of the circuit is
the same as that of the passive filter, except that the amplitude of the signal is increased by
the gain of the amplifier and for a non-inverting amplifier the value of the pass band voltage
gain is given as 1 + R2/R1, the same as for the low pass filter circuit.

Active High Pass Filter with Amplification

This first-order high pass filter, consists simply of a passive filter followed by a non-
inverting amplifier. The frequency response of the circuit is the same as that of the passive
filter, except that the amplitude of the signal is increased by the gain of the amplifier.

For a non-inverting amplifier circuit, the magnitude of the voltage gain for the filter is given
as a function of the feedback resistor ( R2 ) divided by its corresponding input resistor ( R1 )
value and is given as:

Gain for an Active High Pass Filter

Where:

AF = the Pass band Gain of the filter, ( 1 + R2/R1 )

ƒ = the Frequency of the Input Signal in Hertz, (Hz)

ƒc = the Cut-off Frequency in Hertz, (Hz)

Just like the low pass filter, the operation of a high pass active filter can be verified from the
frequency gain equation above as:

1. At very low frequencies, ƒ < ƒc,

2. At the cut-off frequency, ƒ = ƒc,

3. At very high frequencies, ƒ > ƒc,

Then, the Active High Pass Filter has a gain AF that increases from 0Hz to the low
frequency cut-off point, ƒC at 20dB/decade as the frequency increases. At ƒC the gain is
0.707AF, and after ƒC all frequencies are pass band frequencies so the filter has a constant
gain AF with the highest frequency being determined by the closed loop bandwidth of the op-
amp.

When dealing with filter circuits the magnitude of the pass band gain of the circuit is
generally expressed in decibels or dB as a function of the voltage gain, and this is defined as:

Magnitude of Voltage Gain in (dB)

For a first-order filter the frequency response curve of the filter increases by 20dB/decade or
6dB/octave up to the determined cut-off frequency point which is always at -3dB below the
maximum gain value. As with the previous filter circuits, the lower cut-off or corner
frequency ( ƒc ) can be found by using the same formula:

The corresponding phase angle or phase shift of the output signal is the same as that given for
the passive RC filter and leads that of the input signal. It is equal to +45o at the cut-off
frequency ƒc value and is given as:
A simple first-order active high pass filter can also be made using an inverting operational
amplifier configuration as well, and an example of this circuit design is given along with its
corresponding frequency response curve. A gain of 40dB has been assumed for the circuit.

Inverting Operational Amplifier Circuit

Frequency Response Curve

Example No1
A first order active high pass filter has a pass band gain of two and a cut-off corner frequency
of 1kHz. If the input capacitor has a value of 10nF, calculate the value of the cut-off
frequency determining resistor and the gain resistors in the feedback network. Also, plot the
expected frequency response of the filter.

With a cut-off corner frequency given as 1kHz and a capacitor of 10nF, the value of R will
therefore be:
The pass band gain of the filter, AF is given as being, 2.

As the value of resistor, R2 divided by resistor, R1 gives a value of one. Then, resistor R1
must be equal to resistor R2, since the pass band gain, AF = 2. We can therefore select a
suitable value for the two resistors of say, 10kΩ's each for both feedback resistors.

So for a high pass filter with a cut-off corner frequency of 1kHz, the values of R and C will
be, 10kΩ's and 10nF respectively. The values of the two feedback resistors to produce a pass
band gain of two are given as: R1 = R2 = 10kΩ's

The data for the frequency response bode plot can be obtained by substituting the values
obtained above over a frequency range from 100Hz to 100kHz into the equation for voltage
gain:

This then will give us the following table of data.

Frequency, ƒ Voltage Gain Gain, (dB)

( Hz ) ( Vo / Vin ) 20log( Vo / Vin )
100 0.20 -14.02
200 0.39 -8.13
500 0.89 -0.97
800 1.25 1.93
1,000 1.41 3.01
3,000 1.90 5.56
5,000 1.96 5.85
10,000 1.99 5.98
50,000 2.00 6.02
100,000 2.00 6.02

The frequency response data from the table above can now be plotted as shown below. In the
stop band (from 100Hz to 1kHz), the gain increases at a rate of 20dB/decade. However, in the
pass band after the cut-off frequency, ƒC = 1kHz, the gain remains constant at 6.02dB. The
upper-frequency limit of the pass band is determined by the open loop bandwidth of the
operational amplifier used as we discussed earlier. Then the bode plot of the filter circuit will
look like this.
The Frequency Response Bode-plot for our example.

Applications of Active High Pass Filters are in audio amplifiers, equalizers or speaker
systems to direct the high frequency signals to the smaller tweeter speakers or to reduce any
low frequency noise or "rumble" type distortion. When used like this in audio applications
the active high pass filter is sometimes called a "Treble Boost" filter.

Second-order High Pass Active Filter

As with the passive filter, a first-order high pass active filter can be converted into a second-
order high pass filter simply by using an additional RC network in the input path. The
frequency response of the second-order high pass filter is identical to that of the first-order
type except that the stop band roll-off will be twice the first-order filters at 40dB/decade
(12dB/octave). Therefore, the design steps required of the second-order active high pass filter
are the same.

Second-order Active High Pass Filter Circuit

Higher-order high pass filters, such as third, fourth, fifth, etc are formed simply by cascading
together first and second-order filters. For example, a third order high pass filter is formed by
cascading in series first and second order filters, a fourth-order high pass filter by cascading
two second-order filters together and so on. Then an Active High Pass Filter with an even
order number will consist of only second-order filters, while an odd order number will start
with a first-order filter at the beginning as shown.

Cascading Active High Pass Filters

Although there is no limit to the order of a filter that can be formed, as the order of the filter
increases so to does its size. Also, its accuracy declines, that is the difference between the
actual stop band response and the theoretical stop band response also increases.

If the frequency determining resistors are all equal, R1 = R2 = R3 etc, and the frequency
determining capacitors are all equal, C1 = C2 = C3 etc, then the cut-off frequency for any
order of filter will be exactly the same. However, the overall gain of the higher-order filter is
fixed because all the frequency determining components are equal.

In the next tutorial about filters, we will see that Active Band Pass Filters, can be constructed
by cascading together a high pass and a low pass filter.

Active Band Pass Filter

As we saw previously in the Passive Band Pass Filter tutorial, the principal characteristic of
a Band Pass Filter or any filter for that matter, is its ability to pass frequencies relatively
unattenuated over a specified band or spread of frequencies called the "Pass Band". For a low
pass filter this pass band starts from 0Hz or DC and continues up to the specified cut-off
frequency point at -3dB down from the maximum pass band gain. Equally, for a high pass
filter the pass band starts from this -3dB cut-off frequency and continues up to infinity or the
maximum open loop gain for an active filter.
However, the Active Band Pass Filter is slightly different in that it is a frequency selective
filter circuit used in electronic systems to separate a signal at one particular frequency, or a
range of signals that lie within a certain "band" of frequencies from signals at all other
frequencies. This band or range of frequencies is set between two cut-off or corner frequency
points labelled the "lower frequency" ( ƒL ) and the "higher frequency" ( ƒH ) while
attenuating any signals outside of these two points.

Simple Active Band Pass Filter can be easily made by cascading together a single Low Pass
Filter with a single High Pass Filter as shown.

The cut-off or corner frequency of the low pass filter (LPF) is higher than the cut-off
frequency of the high pass filter (HPF) and the difference between the frequencies at the -3dB
point will determine the "bandwidth" of the band pass filter while attenuating any signals
outside of these points. One way of making a very simple Active Band Pass Filter is to
connect the basic passive high and low pass filters we look at previously to an amplifying op-
amp circuit as shown.

Active Band Pass Filter

This cascading together of the individual low and high pass passive filters produces a low "Q-
factor" type filter circuit which has a wide pass band. The first stage of the filter will be the
high pass stage that uses the capacitor to block any DC biasing from the source. This design
has the advantage of producing a relatively flat asymmetrical pass band frequency response
with one half representing the low pass response and the other half representing high pass
response as shown.
The higher corner point ( ƒH ) as well as the lower corner frequency cut-off point ( ƒL ) are
calculated the same as before in the standard first-order low and high pass filter circuits.
Obviously, a reasonable separation is required between the two cut-off points to prevent any
interaction between the low pass and high pass stages. The amplifier also provides isolation
between the two stages and defines the overall voltage gain of the circuit.

The bandwidth of the filter is therefore the difference between these upper and lower -3dB
points. For example, if the -3dB cut-off points are at 200Hz and 600Hz then the bandwidth of
the filter would be given as: Bandwidth (BW) = 600 - 200 = 400Hz. The normalised
frequency response and phase shift for an active band pass filter will be as follows.

Active Band Pass Frequency Response

While the above passive tuned filter circuit will work as a band pass filter, the pass band
(bandwidth) can be quite wide and this may be a problem if we want to isolate a small band
of frequencies. Active band pass filter can also be made using inverting operational amplifier.
So by rearranging the positions of the resistors and capacitors within the filter we can
produce a much better filter circuit as shown below. For an active band pass filter, the lower
cut-off -3dB point is given by ƒC2 while the upper cut-off -3dB point is given by ƒC1.

Inverting Band Pass Filter Circuit

This type of band pass filter is designed to have a much narrower pass band. The centre
frequency and bandwidth of the filter is related to the values of R1, R2, C1 and C2. The
output of the filter is again taken from the output of the op-amp.

Multiple Feedback Band Pass Active Filter

We can improve the band pass response of the above circuit by rearranging the components
again to produce an infinite-gain multiple-feedback (IGMF) band pass filter. This type of
active band pass design produces a "tuned" circuit based around a negative feedback active
filter giving it a high "Q-factor" (up to 25) amplitude response and steep roll-off on either
side of its centre frequency. Because the frequency response of the circuit is similar to a
resonance circuit, this centre frequency is referred to as the resonant frequency, ( ƒr ).
Consider the circuit below.

Infinite Gain Multiple Feedback Active Filter

This active band pass filter circuit uses the full gain of the operational amplifier, with
multiple negative feedback applied via resistor, R 2 and capacitor C2. Then we can define the
characteristics of the IGMF filter as follows:

We can see then that the relationship between resistors, R1 and R2 determines the band pass
"Q-factor" and the frequency at which the maximum amplitude occurs, the gain of the circuit
will be equal to -2Q2. Then as the gain increases so to does the selectivity. In other words,
high gain - high selectivity.

Example No1
An active band pass filter that has a gain Av of one and a resonant frequency, ƒr of 1kHz is
constructed using an infinite gain multiple feedback filter circuit. Calculate the values of the
components required to implement the circuit.

Firstly, we can determine the values of the two resistors, R1 and R2 required for the active
filter using the gain of the circuit to find Q as follows.
Then we can see that a value of Q = 0.7071 gives a relationship of resistor, R2 being twice the
value of resistor R1. Then we can choose any suitable value of resistances to give the required
ratio of two. Then resistor R1 = 10kΩ and R2 = 20kΩ.

The centre or resonant frequency is given as 1kHz. Using the new resistor values obtained,
we can determine the value of the capacitors required assuming that C = C1 = C2.

The closest standard value is 10nF.

Resonant Frequency
The actual shape of the frequency response curve for any passive or active band pass filter
will depend upon the characteristics of the filter circuit with the curve above being defined as
an "ideal" band pass response. An active band pass filter is a 2nd Order type filter because it
has "two" reactive components (two capacitors) within its circuit design and will have a peak
response or Resonant Frequency ( ƒr ) at its "centre frequency", ƒc. The centre frequency is
generally calculated as being the geometric mean of the two -3dB frequencies between the
upper and the lower cut-off points with the resonant frequency (point of oscillation) being
given as:

Where:

ƒr is the resonant or Centre Frequency

ƒL is the lower -3dB cut-off frequency point

ƒH is the upper -3db cut-off frequency point

and in our simple example above the resonant centre frequency of the active band pass filter
is given as:

The "Q" or Quality Factor

In a Band Pass Filter circuit, the overall width of the actual pass band between the upper and
lower -3dB corner points of the filter determines the Quality Factor or Q-point of the
circuit. This Q Factor is a measure of how "Selective" or "Un-selective" the band pass filter
is towards a given spread of frequencies. The lower the value of the Q factor the wider is the
bandwidth of the filter and consequently the higher the Q factor the narrower and more
"selective" is the filter.

The Quality Factor, Q of the filter is sometimes given the Greek symbol of Alpha, ( α ) and
is known as the alpha-peak frequency where:

As the quality factor of an active band pass filter (Second-order System) relates to the
"sharpness" of the filters response around its centre resonant frequency ( ƒr ) it can also be
thought of as the "Damping Factor" or "Damping Coefficient" because the more damping the
filter has the flatter is its response and likewise, the less damping the filter has the sharper is
its response. The damping ratio is given the Greek symbol of Xi, ( ξ ) where:

The "Q" of a band pass filter is the ratio of the Resonant Frequency, ( ƒr ) to the
Bandwidth, ( BW ) between the upper and lower -3dB frequencies and is given as:
Then for our simple example above the quality factor "Q" of the band pass filter is given as:

346Hz / 400Hz = 0.865. Note that Q is a ratio and has no units.

When analysing active filters, generally a normalised circuit is considered which produces an
"ideal" frequency response having a rectangular shape, and a transition between the pass band
and the stop band that has an abrupt or very steep roll-off slope. However, these ideal
responses are not possible in the real world so we use approximations to give us the best
frequency response possible for the type of filter we are trying to design.

Probably the best known filter approximation for doing this is the Butterworth or maximally-
flat response filter. In the next tutorial we will look at higher order filters and use Butterworth
approximations to produce filters that have a frequency response which is as flat as
mathematically possible in the pass band and a smooth transition or roll-off rate.

Butterworth Filter Design

In the previous sections we looked at simple first-order type low and high pass filters that
contain only a single resistor and a single reactive component (a capacitor) within their circuit
design. In applications that use filters to shape the frequency spectrum of a signal such as in
communications or control systems, the shape or width of the roll-off also called the
"transition band", for a simple first-order filter may be too long or wide and so active filters
designed with more than one "order" are required. These types of filters are commonly
known as "High-order" or "nth-order" filters.

The complexity or filter type is defined by the filters "order", and which is dependant upon
the number of reactive components such as capacitors or inductors within its design. We also
know that the rate of roll-off and therefore the width of the transition band, depends upon the
order number of the filter and that for a simple first-order filter it has a standard roll-off rate
of 20dB/decade or 6dB/octave.

Then, for a filter that has an nth number order, it will have a subsequent roll-off rate of 20n
dB/decade or 6N dB/octave. So a first-order filter has a roll-off rate of 20dB/decade
(6dB/octave), a second-order filter has a roll-off rate of 40dB/decade (12dB/octave), and a
fourth-order filter has a roll-off rate of 80dB/decade (24dB/octave), etc, etc.

High-order filters, such as third, fourth, and fifth-order are usually formed by cascading
together single first-order and second-order filters. For example, two second-order low pass
filters can be cascaded together to produce a fourth-order low pass filter, and so on. Although
there is no limit to the order of the filter that can be formed, as the order increases so does its
size and cost, also its accuracy declines.

Decades and Octaves

One final comment about Decades and Octaves. On the frequency scale, a Decade is a
tenfold increase (multiply by 10) or tenfold decrease (divide by 10). For example, 2 to 20Hz
represents one decade, whereas 50 to 5000Hz represents two decades (50 to 500Hz and then
500 to 5000Hz).

An Octave is a doubling (multiply by 2) or halving (divide by 2) of the frequency scale. For

example, 10 to 20Hz represents one octave, while 2 to 16Hz is three octaves (2 to 4, 4 to 8
and finally 8 to 16Hz) doubling the frequency each time. Either way, Logarithmic scales are
used extensively in the frequency domain to denote a frequency value when working with
amplifiers and filters so it is important to understand them.

Logarithmic Frequency Scale

Since the frequency determining resistors are all equal, and as are the frequency determining
capacitors, the cut-off or corner frequency ( ƒC ) for either a first, second, third or even a
fourth-order filter must also be equal and is found by using our now old familiar equation:

As with the first and second-order filters, the third and fourth-order high pass filters are
formed by simply interchanging the positions of the frequency determining components
(resistors and capacitors) in the equivalent low pass filter. High-order filters can be designed
by following the procedures we saw previously in the Low Pass and High Pass filter tutorials.
However, the overall gain of high-order filters is fixed because all the frequency determining
components are equal.

Filter Approximations
So far we have looked at a low and high pass first-order filter circuits, their resultant
frequency and phase responses. An ideal filter would give us specifications of maximum pass
band gain and flatness, minimum stop band attenuation and also a very steep pass band to
stop band roll-off (the transition band) and it is therefore apparent that a large number of
network responses would satisfy these requirements.

Not surprisingly then that there are a number of "approximation functions" in linear analogue
filter design that use a mathematical approach to best approximate the transfer function we
require for the filters design. Such designs are known as Elliptical, Butterworth,
Chebyshev, Bessel, Cauer as well as many others. Of these five "classic" linear analogue
filter approximation functions only the Butterworth Filter and especially the low pass
Butterworth filter design will be considered here as its the most commonly used function.

Low Pass Butterworth Filter Design

The frequency response of the Butterworth Filter approximation function is also often
referred to as "maximally flat" (no ripples) response because the pass band is designed to
have a frequency response which is as flat as mathematically possible from 0Hz (DC) until
the cut-off frequency at -3dB with no ripples. Higher frequencies beyond the cut-off point
rolls-off down to zero in the stop band at 20dB/decade or 6dB/octave. This is because it has a
"quality factor", "Q" of just 0.707.

However, one main disadvantage of the Butterworth filter is that it achieves this pass band
flatness at the expense of a wide transition band as the filter changes from the pass band to
the stop band. It also has poor phase characteristics as well. The ideal frequency response,
referred to as a "brick wall" filter, and the standard Butterworth approximations, for different
filter orders are given below.

Ideal Frequency Response for a Butterworth Filter

Note that the higher the

Butterworth filter order, the
higher the number of cascaded
stages there are within the filter
design, and the closer the filter
becomes to the ideal "brick wall"
response.

In practice however,
Butterworths ideal frequency
response is unattainable as it
produces excessive passband
ripple.
Where the generalised equation representing a "nth" Order Butterworth filter, the frequency
response is given as:

Where: n represents the filter order, Omega ω is equal to 2πƒ and Epsilon ε is the maximum
pass band gain, (Amax). If Amax is defined at a frequency equal to the cut-off -3dB corner point
(ƒc), ε will then be equal to one and therefore ε2 will also be one. However, if you now wish
to define Amax at a different voltage gain value, for example 1dB, or 1.1220 (1dB =
20logAmax) then the new value of epsilon, ε is found by:

 Where:
 H0 = the Maximum Pass band Gain, Amax.
 H1 = the Minimum Pass band Gain.

Transpose the equation to give:

The Frequency Response of a filter can be defined mathematically by its Transfer

Function with the standard Voltage Transfer Function H(jω) written as:

 Where:
 Vout = the output signal voltage.
 Vin = the input signal voltage.
 j = to the square root of -1 (√-1)
 ω = the radian frequency (2πƒ)

Note: ( jω ) can also be written as ( s ) to denote the S-domain. and the resultant transfer
function for a second-order low pass filter is given as:

Normalised Low Pass Butterworth Filter Polynomials

Butterworth produced standard tables of normalised second-order low pass polynomials

given the values of coefficient that correspond to a cut-off corner frequency of 1 radian/sec.
 n Normalised Denominator Polynomials in Factored Form
1 (1+s)
2 (1+1.414s+s2)
3 (1+s)(1+s+s2)
4 (1+0.765s+s2)(1+1.848s+s2)
5 (1+s)(1+0.618s+s2)(1+1.618s+s2)
6 (1+0.518s+s2)(1+1.414s+s2)(1+1.932s+s2)
7 (1+s)(1+0.445s+s2)(1+1.247s+s2)(1+1.802s+s2)
8 (1+0.390s+s2)(1+1.111s+s2)(1+1.663s+s2)(1+1.962s+s2)
9 (1+s)(1+0.347s+s2)(1+s+s2)(1+1.532s+s2)(1+1.879s+s2)
10 (1+0.313s+s2)(1+0.908s+s2)(1+1.414s+s2)(1+1.782s+s2)(1+1.975s+s2)

Filter Design - Butterworth Low Pass

Find the order of an active low pass Butterworth filter whose specifications are Amax = 0.5dB
at a pass band frequency (ωp) of 200 radian/sec, Amin = 20dB at a stop band frequency (ωs) of
800 radian/sec. Also design a suitable Butterworth filter circuit to match these requirements.

Firstly, the maximum pass band gain Amax = 0.5dB which is equal to a gain of 1.0593 (0.5dB
= 20log A) at a frequency (ωp) of 200 rads/s, so the value of epsilon ε is found by:

Secondly, the minimum stop band gain Amin = 20dB which is equal to a gain of 10 (20dB =
20log A) at a stop band frequency (ωs) of 800 rads/s.

Substituting the values into the general equation for a Butterworth filters frequency response
gives us the following:
Since n must always be an integer ( whole number ) then the next highest value to 2.42 is n =
3, therefore a "a third-order filter is required" and to produce a third-order butterworth
filter a second-order stage cascaded with a first-order stage is required.

From the normalised low pass Butterworth Polynomials table above, the coefficient for a
third-order filter is given as (1+s)(1+s+s2) and this gives us a gain of 3-A = 1, or A = 2. As A
= 1 + (Rf/R1), choosing a value for both the feedback resistor Rf and resistor R1 gives us
values of 1kΩ and 1kΩ respectively, ( 1kΩ/1kΩ + 1 = 2 ).

We know that the cut-off corner frequency, the -3dB point (ωo) can be found using the
formula 1/CR, but we need to find ωo from the pass band frequency ωp then,
So, the cut-off corner frequency is given as 284 rads/s or 45.2Hz, (284/2π) and using the
familiar formula 1/CR we can find the values of the resistors and capacitors for our third-
order circuit.

Third-order Butterworth Low Pass Filter

and finally our circuit of the third-order low pass Butterworth Filter with a cut-off corner
frequency of 284 rads/s or 45.2Hz, a maximum pass band gain of 0.5dB and a minimum stop
band gain of 20dB is constructed as follows.