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Material Physics

material physics notes

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5 views37 pages

Material Physics

material physics notes

Uploaded by

rao ali
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© All Rights Reserved
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Available Formats
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Deformation In materials science, deformation refers to modifications of the shape or size of an object due to applied forces or a change in temperature. Examples: Breaking a pencil Bending metal rod Stress ball Crushing a plastic bottle Stretching a rubber band Deformation is usually caused by forces such as: Tensile (pulling) Compressive (pushing) Shear Bending Torsion (twisting) Types 1) Elastic deformation ‘* When Load is removed, objects will return to their original position. ‘* Beginning state of deformation This is reversible. ‘* Favored by lateral longitudinal and shear strain curve. 2) Plastic deformation When load is removed , the object does not return to its original shape and size. ‘* This is beyond the elastic limit © This is irreversible. ‘* Favored by slipping and twinning. 3) Fracture In material science, Fracture is the separation, or fragmentation, of a solid body into two or more parts under the action of stress. All materials eventually fracture ,if enough force is ap ‘© This may be irreversible. 4) Creep ‘* Creep is the tendency of a solid material to deform permanently under the influence of constant stress ‘* Creep is permanent deformation over time. ‘* Usually creep occurs at high temperatures 5) Fatigue * Fatigue is caused , when structures are subjected to high stress over an external period of time. * Fatigue is failure that occurs in structure due to Dynamic and fluctuating loads €.9( bridges, aircraft and ships components ) ‘* fatigue is crack propagation over time. Sroperfection in cryshls Crystals will have a regular feriodic aWangement Ff atoms ' ° Any doiation fiom this periodicity s defects or imperfections in cyshls. + Definition: The deviation fom the perfect parodiity oF atomic amays in aystals is Ciystal —_detpcts The cystal —debects guch a = mechanical Known ad Known ad apfect their Properties Stength, ductility , crystal. grouth, dielectric shonyth, magnetic. hystarsis, Conductivity , ete A perfect crystal, vith ont atorn of the Same type in Connect position, does not exist. Tus, alk crystald hare ome defects. The kbects in Cysts way be corfired to a Point, Dine, Sunjace & vwlwne. “lassification- ure lp a tS UD deeds) tb dae) ion te Scanned with CamScanner Crystal Imperfection A perfect crystal, with every atom of the same type in the correct position, does not exist There always exist crystalline defects, which can be point defects occurring at a single lattice point; line defects occurring along a row of atoms; or planar defects occurring over a two-dimensional surface in the cr ystal. There can also be three-dimensional defects such as voids. Crystalline Defects: Imperfections or defects: Any deviation from the perfect atomic arrangement in a crystal is said to contain imperfections or defects. Or a crystalline defect is a lattice irregularity having one or more of its dimensions on the order of an atomic dimension. There are 4 major categories of crystalline defects: + Zero dimensional: Point defects occurring ata single lattice _ ‘point. ¢ One dimensional: Linear defects (dislocations) occurring _ along a row of atoms. ¢ Two dimensional: Planar (surface) defects occurring over a _ two-dimensional surface in the crystal. ¢ Three dimensional: Volume (bulk) (void) defects Defects influence the electrical and mechanical properties of solids; onsibl While is it perhaps intuitive to think of defects as bad things, they are in fact necessary, even crucial, to the behavior of materials: Almost, or perhaps all, Scanned with CamScanner ig materials depends on the existence of technology involviny i fects. ‘ some Kind of is one way of introducing a Crystal imperfections have strong influence upon many properties of crystals, such a J i an Thus some important properties of crystals are controlled by as much as by imperfections and by the nature of the host crystals. > The conductivity of some semiconductors is due to enti race amount of chemical impurities. eh » Color, luminescence of many crystals ari _and imperfections arise from impurities _ > Atomic diffusion may be accelerated enormously by impurities or imperfections > Mechanic ies are usually controlled by Scanned with CamScanner SoS Te point defects ane When an alom is -wssin One-dimensional, defect or an atem is in an wregulax Place in the batiice Stuctuxw, the Cowasponding —detpcts. = ave known aay Point dekects > A Pint debect produced Stain in a small Volume ef the crystal € Sumounding the crystal] bd doed = not abtect he Perfedions — dvctant farts of the crystal > dn gpneral, fort defects occur in metallic and ionic crystals Types of pomt defects There ane two typed ey Point defects, > Antyinvic debects > Extinsic debyects Oniinaic defects §— include Vacancies , and print ect §=—velated = to V4Can Cred . wo pr saicesschatiiliiance maar’. PS * Frenkel dekects extvinsic detects nude Substitutiona) dekects ond —_-Sntenstitiall defects. ai ln mostly ec rl BR ee, rt ope Mlbeo webeh—eethic_ch ih osha cour center , Pelason and Excilord - Scanned with CamScanner ‘ Condes ; / - Vacancian ase Simplest point detects in a CAstal. which weyers to a missing dlom at. ts site. be}jrition:. The defects due to the. missing atornd ak “kor dice gitey ane called —yacancioh. Example: we is) gown. crystal tittico «= With | vaaaneg debed vacanay (missing atom) athe shegh oh wang Soll métenial. 's j Jon sso? ton 3 ect probe | doeds Ps mainly due to a the wnporied » Naoingy sing the —tprmation oy 4 7” Mette thera veratos, op coms a fi beauke oh Slaaahrnageler Scanned with CamScanner wr te Nwnher of Nacancich yor unit volume fF he crystal depends ufon tornperature 7 on rast = Ganon, —diffyedfon (rnand svardport ty aoc. motion) cin only occur becaude of Vacancés. gr case of ionic Aiystals, there are two typa, of font —doheds yelled to Vacanciés. Wey ave; . Schottky — dehect + Frenkel dehecr Schaliky deyect: j vacancias is produced at one aa ae ond one negative ion site gue to absence eh positive and negative ions, then ‘ts type of dehect is 4 gohotty — dehect- » On ionic crystals, tee aye tno types of Possible — Vacances, momely Cation [sve ion) 0 and — anion [-ve ion) vacancies . o tho. interior of te he cystal te its vacancy is Aywmed asain. ah, Scanned with CamScanner —————— “se was ~ 2 Soimation of we in Vacancy yanults in 2xcedd negertive Change wside the crystal to ruaintain charge mestiality, a -ve ion moves to the crystal sounpace creating -ve. ion vacancy ot its site Exomple+ Nocl , CsCl, atc-. QEQeEdM@OAO® smissing @ far GOR moO” 4f Stor Om CLO v BOceoece) t © Schattky defect take pace oy in onic 5 Schatiky defect main Aeclrical neatly. . Steng ky of Soret defect is 42b2en than Pontyect oystel - Frenkel Defects: ot is spedal Gke of vacancy and_ interstitial in ionic gst - byjnitin: when a pair’ of yaaan das is Produced nisin cag fOSttIve. gte and one i ion gite by yopaarg postive and neqative ions. ron tes ype PF ca ispeo fF an a i bs at meas interstial Position - exhibits scholtky defect ore Scanned with CamScanner ser HR Periodic ns Achibution of wo and -ve wy an tonic crystal. when WANG 1 leave its ste and settleg in the invtorstitia | Postton then it cede oa Vacang in its position. - Thus, a vacan and. iwiterstitind deheck ae Created. “Wis pair of deforts is known a) Frankel dekect- Sn tare of Franke, debect alto chaye massility i wnainiained . f “Agr, Agcl, Zns de., exhibits Fiankdl debect. ®OD90O000 ae Bee lee Bt S858 ao Scanned with CamScanner > A pure metal consisting of only one type of atom just isn’t possible; impurity or foreign atoms will always be present, and some will exist as crystalline point defects. > In fact, even with relatively sophisticated techniques, it is At this level, on the order of purity atoms will be present in one cubic meter of material. » Metals which have impurity called alloys. ® cloying is used in metals to improve mechanical strength, and corrosion resistance > Several terms rel: deserve mention. (solute and solvent ) lating to impurities and solid solutions > “Solvent” represents the elem Present in the > “Solute” is used to denote an element or com resent in aminor concentration, age Solid Solutions: ent or compound that is unt host atoms, When, as the solute atoms are added Crystal structure is maintained, and no Scanned with CamScanner & Exwinsic Defects Substitutional davcts: when an imput atory\ the Positions of + crystal , then atch Gubstitutional defect Ocaupies the one of parent atoms of ‘the a defect is Known 45 A substitutional impunity aton is an aton oF 6 diffaent type than the luk atons upually . gtbstitutonal aloms are dose in dze to the bulk atom he strergt oh tis dete may not be charged bt = other = propates ve changed Example: oppen alom » unc atan zine atoms are substitutional imp waity atoms that ae added +e Copper 70 make 6485. 9n brads, zine atoms with madd of o133nm hane veplaced soma. Of | He. Copper cites of adivd &128nm. Scanned with CamScanner Sutershitial defects when an wmpunit} atom ties to je. wienstitial §— pace bw of the cyystal with out / such 4 dekect aS defect. sate in the panont atoms displacing , the Quch ynown ab interstitial, = Sntorctitial —wmpunitien oe much dmallor tron the atoms an bulk amalyix this dafect wrcraades = obho changed othon propertied - ~ vo show af Carbon atoms = we that ayo added to pemaearas ES initensttial ampauty ators ‘ted. In Ue. yadius of 0.6llnm petra vasttnt space bly te anger irom atoms of fad’ o-hYnm. atoms with Scanned with CamScanner ‘tials — atoms that ar atoms, itis called self-interstitial. Creation of a self-interstitial causes a substantial distortions in the surrounding lattice and costs more energy as compared to the energy for creation of a vacancy (Qi > QV) and, under equilibrium conditions, self- interstitials are present in lower concentrations than vacancies. Foreign, usually smaller atoms (carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen) are called interstitial impurities. iti is Interstitial impurity atoms fit into the open space between the bulk atoms of the lattice structure. An example of interstitial purity atoms is the Carbon atoms. with a radius of 0.071 fim, fit nicely in the open spaces between the larger (O:124 nm) irom atoms. They introduce less distortion to the lattice and are more common. in real materials and more mobile. If the foreign atom replaces or substitutes for a matrix atom, it is called a substitutional impurity. substitutional impurity atom is an atom of a different type than the matrix atoms, which has replaced o of the bulk (matrix) atoms in the - ‘Scanned with CamScanner es Geeerls, / TRE — dobects me dpedal case d pont defect « EMeoy i Ss iy charge dstitit im ‘elds ae f ced — electronic cbfeets © Thebe defects ane produced 49 when the ompasition OF an ionic cystal — dogs not attaypond to the exact —Wtoichionetric © formda 0 me is a date for ionic rompounds whee tae is te exact ratio of aitions to anions = a prescribed ty the Chem 2 April a trample : tre ratio F Nacl is Stoiciometvic Miacsicons to Cl toms 5 exactly il A campound 1s non-stoichiometvic 4h qhane is deviation 4r0™ the. exact ‘ratio- The won-stoichiometvic Comprsition is Caded bf an exces sh metal iond. Mpesc. Die bdo Gdllod as Oren deyrk or dislocations. Foe ane one_dimentionl. feck. pislecationn are aneed wihow the atom ae at of postin in he crystal suchre. APE Eilon. sau dislocwtin Scanned with CamScanner These = two - dwnenhiord —defeds Te = Yajon sh — distartions tat be ee y nurkce = haning 4 tins b ey % - diamndond ane = Kran gunlace des. = Surkace defects ane two derenhiona. degecs frat = epangte two regions of the oust ign. < swhact —impenipctons ane ‘metastable inno to tts veh ln§ . te omskd is heded coe — ee any ot the bunfaco impenhectons eR =r Scanned with CamScanner f since the bunrtace he maximum Wiel a DL nt bordel ty " Qe in a Mato eo f Osd Ge Fe ia oh He Osta. This 6) vise to a Lunfpce ener. vale _ Ste Tends to minirize the tel. burfoce bat ne I ed Hie sbafpce T'S not possible becaue solids ane mechani cally vid Staking Faults : fouls ane nan. co. mmparee cured ty Fault open siacay eq pence a oh diame yors mca Fe tal we have ‘thee diltpnent aig bed AC ble eh Schr to dient laps C. Scanned with CamScanner Bi, te veqponce 4s intompted and 4 tiakog jou is produced. lp ye, we find that the wading y a missing egion tomes Hcp. + The dacking fputts ane usualy produced hang he ew, oy the cystabs. # Stacking tows ane obsomed nn FCC whals ‘Scanned with CamScanner 3- Interfacial defects Interfacial defects can be defined as boundaries that have two dimensional imperfections in crystalline solids, and have different crystal structures and/or crystallographic orientations on either side of them. They refer to the regions of distortions that lie about a surface having thickness of a few atomic diameters. For example: external surfaces, grain boundaries, twin boundaries, stacking faults, and phase boundaries. These "defects into a plan External surface: The environment of an atom at a surface differs from that of an atom in the bulk; especially the number of neighbors (coordination) at surface is less. Thus the unsaturated bonds of surface atoms give rise to a surface energy. This result in ‘Scanned with CamScanner i OF FECONStructic,, relaxation (the lattice spacing is — i, (the crystal structure changes). To a gy. a area. tend to minimize, if possible, the total surface Grain boundaries: ‘ Crystalline solids are, usually, made of number of grains separated by grain boundaries. Grain boundaries are several atoms distances wide, and there is mismatch of orientation of _Zfrins on exther side of the boundary as shown in figure below. When this misalignment is slight, on the order of few degrees (< . These boundaries 10°), it is called low angle grain boundary can be described in terms of aligned dislocation arrays. If the dislocations. Both tilt and twist boundaries are planar surface imperfections im contrast to high angle grain boundaries. For high angle gras bonamdanes Scanned with CamScanner Groin Boundaries: | Ke ost important eect in cxystalline hamples is the giain boundary - ~ Gyan boundaia ane 2b deyeds in the oogptal. huctue. bouncy i the witenkace blw two + A gain of cnpsladlites paycrystdlline qiains mata al - + They ‘end to decease ‘te ledical and trove §— Conductivity of he modenial. oundanied disvupt te amin 3 Gyn trogh emalenial . dislocation S go. reducing cystic ae eS a Ba is % comm dravicad — thong Scanned with CamScanner ~~, “a é > = & 3 DZ = a OG SITIOS 00 2006 S55 GeSOSS a so c0l9000 c_! COIS. 00 LQ i Gysin A Goin boundary is alto Cabled 2 ritetion dee gn elation «2 typed exist: Rotation defects etic am Scanned with CamScanner , We donc = amanganail on ore Ade of 5 A twin bountay is a mnior wekction A te § altungonert on te athen— dae. At one boundary , oriantation off atomic anlargement barge, wheres at the other bourdam tt is vestored back. Hone, me fide of a twin boundary is a “mwnior Whlection off the other sido, The efon Hw the pain of boundary Sait sii is ies aici Scanned with CamScanner Twin boundaries: It is a special type of grain boundary across which there is specific mirror lattice symmetry. Twin boundaries occur in pairs such that the orientation change introduced by one boundary is restored by the other (figure below). The region between the pair of boundaries is called the twinned region. ‘Twins which i d , Whereas defi ‘deformation. Twinning occurs on a definite crystallographic plane and in a specific direction, both of which depend on the crystal structure. Annealing twins are typically found in metals that have FCC crystal structure (and low stacking fault energy), while mechanical/deformation twins are observed in BCC and HCP metals. Annealing twins are usually broader and with straighter sides than mechanical twins. Twins do not extend beyond a grain boundary. Scanned with CamScanner Tit Goundany: * Wis is called low angle bounday ad the ovientahon dilfprence bf two Neighbousing Crystal) is ess than Io”. + The disvuption wn the oun dany is not So senere as in the Wih angle boundany . Wis 1S deynibed guitable Ss off AS\0 ation. "I om a Actually, a2 tow angle ith boun deny is Composed of edge dislocation © Lying. one above the other. = he ag le oy tilt wal be B= bly whe b- Bogen s vedor = and D = average vorticed distance bw dislocation. colee Scanned with CamScanner Grain Boundary: tilt and twist One grain orientation can be obtained by rotation of another grain across the grain boundary about an axis through an angle — If the axis of rotation lies in the boundary plane it is called tilt boundary If the angle of rotation is perpendicular to the boundary plane it is called a twist boundary aiieautiiall sc paul eel Scanned with CamScanner a — — ™~ om ie The most simple boundary is that of a tilt fee where the rotation axisig ““* parallel to the boundary plane. This boundary can be conceived as forming from a single, contiguous crystallite or grain which is gradually bent by some external force. The energy associated with the elastic bending of the lattice can be reduced by inserting a dislocation, which is essential ly a half-plane of atoms that act like a wedge, that creates a permanent misorientation between the two sides. As the grain is bent further, more and more dislocations must be introduced to accommodate the deformation resulting in a growing wall of dislocations - a low- into two sub- angle boundary. The grain can now be considered to have sp! grains of related crystallography but notably different orientations. An alternative is a twist boundary where the misorientation occurs around an axis that is perpendicular to the boundary plane This type of boundary incorporates two sets of screw dislocations. Scanned with CamScanner FWUA+RDARDWA aupjd UML QUD|g UML >WAMPROAM2X0 Scanned with CamScanner Volume Dehects volume dofech ong 3h d, ; o Wwiwne defects uch aa yaks tog anise mn crystals — during he process of cngstal youth + while growing, any passile ral dechrosttic dissimilenty “Yu the dtacking byend rity nett in onack « & brge vacancy aise dué to ussmg ob clusters of © alornd which is & volume —dekect- + Snclupiag ob 4oraqn patides or non— crystalline segions Mf dmentiond of ak leat jo- 304 i balong to tre = Category of volume defect: + wl optic mnticroscopes, preserxe of volume dojecs canbe _— detected . Snterfexometric — techniyeh «Gan alto be jed to the study o the volume defects. Wid , Crack , Scanned with CamScanner F<: abect optical, thermal, mechanical Popntios 7 CVAKSs abbect medninicall proportion . 7 Foregn inclusions: arted clectricall, medrnnicd 4 opha propatics. Wye preoprtate particles , un dodivable ; haul. » Percipitatess fraction of micen in die. » Dispersants: way be hye preopitstes, grains, Polyq ranulan. Particles distvibuted through, ot mi Crostyudune. 2 WoidS: Trapped gua, decreadas metanicl dhongth: Scanned with CamScanner ANNEALING This is a kind of heat treatment after which a metal or alloy acquires a structure close to the equilibrium one. A material is exposed to an elevated temperature for an extended time period and then slowly cooled ‘Normally, annealing is carried out to a. Relative stresses b. increase softness, ductility and toughness €. Produce a specific microstructure. An annealing process consists of three stages: (i) heating to the desired temperature, (ii) holding or ‘soaking’ at that temperature, and (iii) cooling, usually to room temperature. The temperature of heating in annealing depends on the composition of an alloy and the particular kind of the process; the rate of cooling from the annealing temperature is usually not high (within 30-200°C/h). There are varieties of annealing heat treatments possible. These are characterized by the changes that are induced, which many times are microstructural and are responsible for the alteration of the mechanical properties. In annealing procedures, time is an important parameter. There exist temperature gradients between the outside and interior portions of the piece during heating and cooling, The magnitudes of temperature gradients depend on the size and geometry of the piece. If the rate of temperature, change is too great, temperature gradients and internal stresses may be induced that may lead to warping or even cracking. Moreover, the actual annealing, time must be long enough to allow for any necessary transformation reactions. An annealing temperature is also an important consideration. Since diffusional processes are normally involved and therefore annealing may be accelerated by increasing the temperature. The various types of annealing operations are: @ — Fullannealing, ii) Process annealing, (iii) Spheroid’s annealing (iv) Stress- relief annealing > Full anne: 85 This operation removes all structural imperfections by complete recrystallization. This operation is often utilized in low and medium carbon steels that will be machined or will experience extensive plastic deformation during a forming operation, This operation consists of: (i) Heating the hypocutectoid stee! to about 50-70°C above the upper critical temperature (for hypoeutectoid steels) and by the same temperature above the lower critical temperature for hypereutectoid steels until equilibrium is achieved. This ensures that the metal is heated thoroughly and phase transformation has taken place throughout the whole volume. (ii) The alloy is then furnace cooled; i.e., the heat-treating furnace is turned off and both furnace and steel cool to room temperature at the same rate, which takes several hours. The microstructural product of full anneal is coarse pearlite (in addition to any proeutectoid phase) that is relatively soft and ductile, The full-annealing cooling procedure is time 1g small grains and a uniform grain structure 1g; however, a microstructure hat > Process annealing This is a heat treatment that is used to negotiate the effects of cold work, ic. to soften and increase the ductility of a previously strain hardened metal. Process annealing is commonly utilized during fabrication procedures that require extensive plastic deformation, to allow a continuation of deformation without fracture or excessive energy consumption. It is the recrystallization of cold work, ie., recovery and recrystallization processes are allowed to occur. Process annealing is very useful in mild steels and low carbon steels. Process annealing or sub-critical annealing which is done on coldworked low carbon steel sheet, wire or tubing to relieve internal stresses and to soften the material. The process is as follows: (i) The steel is heated to 550-650°C, which is just below the lower critical temperature on iron-carbon diagram for steel. (ii) Stresses throughout the metal are relieved and recrystallization causes new grains to form and grow. Changes taking place during process annealing are shown in Fig. 10.4. Heating period is followed by slow cooling, Prolonged annealing causes the cementite in the pearlite to “ball up” or spheroidise, Ferrite grain growth also occurs, Obviously, annealing time and temperature control is very essential for proper process annealing > Stress relief annealing: Internal residual stresses may develop in metal pieces due to: (i) plastic deformation processes such as matching and grinding; (ii) non uniform cooling of a piece that was, processed or fabricated at an elevated temperature, such as a weld or a casting; and (iii) a phase transformation that is induced upon cooling where in parent and product phases have different densities. Distortion and warpage may result in case if residual stresses are not removed They can be eliminated by this process-in which the piece is heated to the recommended temperature, held there long enough to attain a uniform temperature, and finally cooled to room temperature in air. No phase transformation takes place during stress relief annealing. > Spheroidizing Annealing: ‘The Spheroidizing Annealing process is for high carbon and alloy steel in order to improve their machinability. In spheroidizing annealing, the steel is heated to a temperature below A1 temperature, kept at that temperature for some time followed by slow cooling. The holding time varies from 15-25 [Link] is mainly used for eutectoid steel and hyper eutectic steel such as carbon tool steel, alloy tool steel, bearing steel, ete. This process improves the internal structure of the steel. This can be done by two methods: i) The material is heated just below the lower critical temperature of about 700 degrees and the temperature is maintained for hours and then allowed to cool down. ii) Heating and cooling the material alternatively between the temperature just above and below the lower critical temperature. Purpose of Spheroidizing Annealing: 4) The main aim of spheroidizing annealing is to improve the machinability of steel b) This process reduces harness and uniform structure and prepares the material for quenching, ) In this process cementite is converted into a spherical form. nature of the crystal and on the bombarding particles and not on the temperature. 21. LINE DEFECTS OR DISLOCATIONS Line imperfections are called dislocations. A linear disturbance, i.e. one dimensional imperfections in the geometrical sense of the atomic arrangement, which can very easily occur on the slip plane through the crystal, is known as dislocation. The most important kinds of linear defects are edge and screw dislocation. Both these types are formed in the process of their deformation, Both these defects are the most striking imperfections and are responsible for the useful property of ductility in metals, ceramics and crystalline polymers. (i) Edge Dislocation: This type of dislocation is formed by adding an extra partial plane of atoms to the crystal [Fig. 3.48(a)]. An edge dislocation in its cross-section is essentially the edge of an ‘extra’ half-plane in the crystal lattice. The lattice around dislocation is elastically distorted. Figure 3.49(a) shows a cross-section of a crystal where atoms (shown by dots) arranged in a perfect orderly manner. When an extra half plane is inserted from the top, the displacement of atoms is shown in Fig. 3.49(b). We note from Fig. 3.49(b) that top and bottom of the crystal above and below the line XY appears perfect. When the extra half plane is inserted from the top, the defects so produced is represented by L (inverted tee) and if the extra half plane is inserted from the bottom, the defects so produced is represented by T (Tee). Scanned with CamScanner Crystal Geometry, Structure and Defects 99 | | | Ly | | (a) | | (b) Fig. 3.49 Edge dislocation caused by an extra partial plane of atoms in the crystal Near the dislocation, the distortion in the crystal is due to the presence of zones of compression and tension in the crystal lattice. The lattice above the line of dislocation is in a state of compression, whereas below this line, it is in tension. We must note that the dislocation line is a region of higher energy than the rest of the crystal. The criterion of distortion is what is called the Burgers vector. It can be determined if a closed contour is drawn around a zone in an ideal crystal by passing from one site to another as shown in Fig. 3.50(a) and then the procedure is repeated a zone in a real crystal containing a dislocation, As may be seen from Fig. 3.50(b), the contour described in real crystal turns out to be unclosed. The vector required for the closing the contour is the Burgers vector. The Burgers vector of an edge dislocation is equal to the interatomic space and perpendicular to the dislocation line, oon Bl [A He | EY t () Fig. 3.50 Determination of Burgers vector (BA)

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