Research
Process
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Research Process
• Formulating the problem • Conducting pilot study &
• Reviewing related literature making revisions
• Developing/utilizing a theoretical • Selecting the sample
framework • Collecting the data
• Identifying research variables • Organizing the data for analysis
• Formulating hypotheses • Analyzing the data
• Selecting a research design • Interpreting the results
• Specifying the population • Communicating the findings
• Operationalizing & measuring
research variables
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Research Problems and
Hypotheses
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Developing & Refining a
Research Problem
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A researcher spends a great deal of time refining a
research idea into a testable research problem
The process of defining a research problem:
• Define a specific problem area
• Review relevant scientific literature
• Examine the problem’s potential significance to
specialty
• Pragmatically examine the feasibility of studying
the research problem
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1. Defining the Problem Area
● Researchers generally begin with an interest in some
broad topic area then the topic is narrowed down to a
specific problem to be studied.
● Usually the research focuses on the dependent
variable of the study, the variable that will be
predicted or explained through its relationship
to the independent variable.
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Review
● The literature review should reveal that the
scientific literature relevant to the problem area
has been critically examined. Often concluding
sections on recommendations and implications
for practice identifying remaining gaps in the
literature, the need for replication, or the need
for extension of the knowledge base about a
particular research focus
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3. Significance
Before proceeding to a final formulation of
the problem statement, it is crucial for the
researcher to examine the problem’s
potential significance to specialty.
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The problem should have the following criteria:
● Patients, nurses, the medical community in general, and
society will potentially benefit from the knowledge
derived from this study
● Results will be applicable for practice, education, or
administration
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● Results will be theoretically relevant
● Findings will lend support to untested theoretical
assumptions, extend or challenge an existing theory, or
clarify a conflict in the literature
● Findings will potentially formulate or alter practice or
policies
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4. Feasibility
● Feasibility of a research problem includes
considerations such as time, availability of
subjects, facilities, equipment and money.
● The experience of the researcher, and any
ethical considerations may cause the researcher
to decide that the problem in inappropriate
because it lack feasibility
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If the research problem has not
met any of these criteria,
it is wise to extensively
revise the problem or discard it
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Development of a
Research problem
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Idea emerges
Brainstorming
Review of the
Literature
Identify Variables
Research Problem is Formulated
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Sources of research problems:
●Personal experiences
●Literature sources
●Existing theories
●Previous research
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The Variables
● A variable is something that varies (eg. Age, sex, blood
type etc.).Researchers attempt to understand how and
why differences in one variable are related to differences
in another variable.
● The researcher is asking a question about the
relationship between one or more independent
variables and a dependent variable.
● Independent variable (cause) is the variable that
has the presumed effect on the dependent variable is
manipulated by the researcher.
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The Variables
● In nonexperimental research the independent variable
is not manipulated and is assumed to have occurred
naturally before or during the study.
● Dependent variable (effect)is the consequence or
the presumed effect that varies with a change in the
independent variable.
● The dependent variable is not manipulated, it is
observed and assumed to vary with changes in the
independent variable.
● Predictions are made from the independent variable
(cause) to the dependent variable.
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The Variables
● It is the dependent variable that the researcher is
interested in understanding, explaining and predicting.
● Although variability in the dependent variable is
assumed to depend on changes in the independent
variable, that doesn’t imply that there is a casual
relationship.
● There is no restriction on the number of variables that
can be included in a problem statement.
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Classification of research variables
1. One variable study/ univariate study
Ex. “what sources of work stress are identified by thoracic care unit
health providers?”
2. Two variables study/bivariate study
One is dependent and the other is independent
Ex. Is there a correlation between the number of sources of stress
reported by health providers in a thoracic intensive care. The
independent variable is “ the number of reported sources of stress.” and
the dependent variable is the desire to leave employment in the thoracic
intensive care unit.”
3. Multi-variables study/ multivariate study
more than two variables are examined in a study
Ex. Why clients do not take their medications as directed after they are
discharged?
Why do medical students pass/fail the examination?
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The Variables
● Problem statements that include more than one
independent or dependent variables may be
broken down into sub problems that are not
concise.
● Variables are not inherently independent or
dependent.
A variable that is classified as independent in one
study may be considered dependent in another
study.
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Population
● The term population refers to the aggregate or
totality of all the objects or subjects or members
which conform to a designated set of
specifications
● The nature of the population being studied
needs to be specified in the problem statement.
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The Final Problem Statement
A problem statement can be:
➢ Declarative
➢ Interrogative Both are
acceptable
Interrogative form: statement that ask
● “Is there a correlation between the number of hours that
baccalaureate medical students have studied and their anxiety
levels before the midterm examination?”
Declarative form
● “This study examines the relationship between the number of
hours that baccalaureate medical students have studied and their
anxiety levels before the midterm examination.”
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A good problem statement exhibits the
following: (criteria for a good problem):
● It clearly and unambiguously identifies the study
variables
● It clearly expresses the variables’ relationship to
each other
● It specifies the nature of the population being
studied
● It implies the possibility of empirical testing
Ex: effect of preoperative teaching (independent) on
anxiety level (dependent) among surgical patients
(population).
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The Final Problem Statement
The problem is associated with the
purpose of the study,
but it is not identical.
The purpose of the study encompasses the
aims or goals the investigator hopes to
achieve with the research,
not the problem to be solved
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Testability
● The statement of the research problem must
imply that the problem is testable, i.e.
measurable by either quantitative or qualitative
methods
● A research problem must propose a relationship
between at least one independent and one
dependent variable indicating that these
variables can be measured
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Developing the
Research Hypotheses
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● Hypotheses: intelligent hunches, guesses, or
predictions that assist the researcher in seeking
the solution or answer to the research question.
● Predicts the relationship between two or more variables.
● Provides the predicted answer to the research questions.
● A theory’s validity is not directly examined.
Instead, it is through the hypotheses that the merit
of a theory can be evaluated
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● Hypotheses are often not stated explicitly in a
research article
● Contains the population and variables
● Proposes the relationship between the
independent and the dependent variables.
● Hypotheses flow from the problem statement,
literature review, and theoretical framework
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● Each hypothesis represents a unit or subset of
the research problem
● Hypotheses are formulated before the study is
conducted because they provide direction for the
collection, analysis, and interpretation of data
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Interrelationship of
Problem Statement,
Literature Review,
Theoretical Framework,
and Hypothesis
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Hypothesis Theoretical
Framework
Literature
Problem Review
Statement
Purposes of Hypotheses
• Provide a bridge between theory and reality
• Enable researcher to objectively enter new
areas of discovery
• Provide direction for any research endeavor
by tentatively identifying the anticipated
outcome
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Criteria for
Formulating/Evaluatin
g Hypotheses
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The Relationship Statement
A declarative statement that identifies the
predicted relationship between two or more
variables
➢ The direction of the relationship is also
specified in this statement e.g. greater than,
less than, negatively, positively ….
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➢ The nature of the relationship, either causal or
associative, is also implied by the hypothesis
➢ A causal relationship is one where the researcher
is able to predict that the independent variable
causes a change in the dependent variable
➢ It is rare in research that one is in a firm enough
position to take a definitive stand about a cause-
and effect relationship so,
One can only say that there is an associative
relationship between the variables
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Testability
➢ Means that the variables of the study must lend
themselves to observation, measurement, and
analysis
➢ The hypothesis is either supported or not
supported after the data have been collected and
analyzed
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Theory Base
➢ A sound hypothesis is consistent with an
existing body of theory and research findings
➢ Regardless of whether or not a hypothesis is
arrived at inductively or deductively, it must be
based on a sound scientific rationale
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Wording the Hypothesis
Hypothesis should be worded in clear, simple and concise
terms
Directional Vs Nondirectional
hypotheses:
➢ Directional hypothesis: specifies the expected direction
of the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables
➢ Nondirectional hypothesis: indicates the existence of a
relationship between the variables but does not specify
the anticipated direction of the relationship
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A deductive hypothesis derived from a
theory will almost always be directional.
The theory will provide a critical rationale for proposing that
relationships between variables will have particular output
Example:
There is negative relationship between denial and reports of
anxiety among post-myocardial infarction patients.
Example:
Daily weight loss is greater for adults who follow a reduced
calorie diet and exercise daily than for those who do not
follow a reduced calorie diet and do not exercise daily.
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Classification of hypotheses
Statistical versus Research hypotheses
➢ Statistical hypotheses
(null hypotheses) (H0): states that there is no relationship between
independent and dependent variables
➢ Research hypothesis (H1) (alternative hypothesis)
(scientific hypothesis): a statement of expected relationship
between the variables. It can be directional or nondirectional
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A hypothesis can either be
supported or not supported by study findings
Rejection of the statistical hypothesis is
equivalent to acceptance of the research
hypothesis
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Relationship Between
Hypotheses
&
Research design
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➢ The type of research design; experimental or non-
experimental, will influence the wording of the
hypothesis
In case of an experimental design, the hypothesis will
reflect cause effect relationship
e.g. incidence of …. will be greater in subjects after ….
than after ….
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➢ Hypothesis related to non-experimental
designs reflect associative relationship
statements
e.g. there will be a positive relationship between
… and ….
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Hypothesis criteria
A hypothesis should:
•Be written in a declarative sentence
•Be written in the present tense
•Contain the population
•Contain variables
•Reflect the problem statement, purpose
statement, or research question
•Be empirically testable
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Research Questions
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Research question format
● Research questions for studies that examine more than one
variable are usually written as correlational statement or
comparative statement.
1. Correlational Statement
(dependent and independent)
“ Is there a correlation between anxiety (independent) and
midterm scores (dependent) of baccalaureate medical
students?”
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Research question format
2. Comparative Statement:
a. Descriptive study:
“Is there a difference between in readiness to learn about
preoperative teaching between preoperative patients who
have high anxiety levels compared to preoperative
patients who have low anxiety levels?”
b. Experimental study:
“ Is there a difference in the preoperative anxiety levels of
patients who where taught relaxation techniques compared to
those patients who were not taught relaxation techniques?”
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➢ Exploratory studies usually have research
questions not hypotheses
➢ The outcome of an exploratory study may help in
formulating hypotheses for future studies
➢ Qualitative research studies are guided by
research questions rather than hypotheses
➢ The descriptive findings of qualitative studies can
provide the basis for future hypothesis-testing
studies
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Some studies may have research questions
and hypotheses. In such case, research
questions do not pertain to the proposed
outcomes, rather, they may provide
additional information that may enrich
the study and may provide direction for
further study
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Thank You