Nondestructive Examination (NDE) Technology

Introduction to Radiographic Examination

 air acts as an insulator. Furthermore the electrons
INTRODUCTION TO RADIO-GRAPHIC
move between the electrodes in a burst of harsh
EXAMINATION
sparks. If the air pressure in the tube is reduced,
the harsh sparks change into a soft continuous
Learning Objectives:
glow. The electrons can now flow between the
electrodes. This is the same principle used in
To enable the student to:
modern day neon strip lighting.

1. Achieve an understanding of radiographic

In 1895, during one of these experiments, a
testing (RT) basics, including X-ray and
German professor Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
gamma radiography.
made a discovery that was to be one of the most
important in the development of modern science.
2. Understand the variables in the process of
radiography.
In his darkened laboratory he noticed that
when the discharge tube was turned on,
3. Understand how sensitivity is achieved,
cardboard coated with a fluorescent salt began to
controlled, and optimized in radiography.
glow. Further experiments established that some
invisible ray or beam of energy was being
4. Achieve an understanding of radiographic
produced by the discharge tube. This ray could
interpretation.
penetrate the glass vessel and cause the salts to
fluoresce. He found that he could place his
5. Recognize the advantages and limitations of
hand in the beam and the rays would pass
this method.
through the skin and flesh leaving an image of
the bones. A few days later he recorded this
History
effect on a photographic plate thus producing the
first radiograph. These previously unknown
During the 1890's several eminent physicists
rays were called X-rays.
turned their attention to experiments with gas
discharge tubes. These tubes consisted of an
Roentgen showed that X-rays are a form of
elongated glass vessel into which electrodes had
electromagnetic energy and are part of the same
been hermetically sealed and the air removed (or
spectrum as light (Figure -1). They travel at the
reduced to very low pressures). A voltage could
same velocity of light and obey most of its laws
then be applied to the electrodes and results
though their wavelength is very much shorter.
observed.
It is this shorter wavelength that allows X-rays to
penetrate materials. Upon reading Roentgen's
At normal atmospheric pressure inside the
findings Henri Becquerel, working with the
tube, a very high voltage is needed to make the
Curies in France, realized that some of the
current jump between the electrodes, because the
 energy emitted during the disintegration process of certain natural elements such as radium (refined from pitch-
blend) was indeed identical to Roentgen's X-rays although Becquerel had given them the name of gamma after the
third letter in the Greek alphabet.
Principles resultant radiograph. Other recording media
may also beused.
Radiography relies on the fact that X and
gamma rays possess the capability of penetrating The most important difference between light
materials. The penetrating power of the X- rays and X and gamma rays is their penetrating
ray beam can be increased or decreased to ability. Visible light is stopped by opaque sub-
examine different materials by changing stances. However, because X-rays have such a
the applied volt-age. The amount of X-rays high frequency and short wavelength, they are
reaching the object can also be controlled. able to penetrate opaque objects and expose
While passing through an object, some of radiographic film. The depth of penetration
the radiation is also absorbed and scattered.
The amount of absorption that occurs
depends on the thickness and densityof the
material; therefore, the intensity of the
radiation emerging from the material varies
accordingly. The emergent radiation causes
an invisible change to the emulsion of the
film. By subsequent development, the
affected silver halides are converted to
black metallic silver. After development,
the unaffected silver halides are removed
by “fixing” and thus an image of the object
is produced. The film is then washed and
dried and is ready for viewing.

Because of the penetration and

absorption capabilities of X and gamma
radiation, radiogra- phy is used to
examine a variety of products such as
welds, castings, forgings, and various
fabri- cated parts. Radiography is one
of the primary NDE methods in use
today. It requires exposing film to X or
gamma rays that have penetrated a
specimen, then processing the exposed
film, and subsequently interpreting the
depends upon the type of material density, its tube and gamma rays come from a radioactive
thickness, and the energy of the radiation. isotope.

X and gamma ray energy is dependent on Characteristics of Matter

frequency and wavelength. High energy X and All atoms are composed of three basic parti-
gamma rays are characterized by a high cles:
frequency and short wavelength. It is important
to note that X and gamma rays of the same Proton - A proton has a positive charge and
frequency and wavelength have identical is relatively heavy (1 Atomic Mass Unit).
properties.
Neutron - A neutron is about the same size
X and gamma rays also travel in straight and weight as the proton but has no electrical
lines. The radiation produces the image of a charge.
specimen - just as a shadow picture of an object
can be produced with a strong light and a screen. Electron - An electron is a very light
X and gamma rays expose radiographic film particle, about 1/1840 of the weight of a proton.
because of their ability to ionize matter. It has a negative charge.

When the radiation penetrates the film, it The number of protons present in an atom
ionizes the tiny silver grains in the film emulsion. determines the element.
The ionization of the film’s emulsion forms a
“latent (or invisible) image”, which is developed Over 100 different kinds of atoms exist and
during later processing of the film. they are called elements. Oxygen, copper, and
lead are some common elements. Elements or
The specimen itself is an important combinations of elements (molecules) form all
consideration in making a radiograph. Enough the things we see in everyday living. For
radiation must penetrate the object to form an examples there are billions of atoms in the tip of
image. Too much radiation overexposes the a pencil, with over 99.99 percent of each atom
film. “Absorption” is the ability of the being empty space.
specimen to block the passage of X-rays through
the material. When the film is developed, the Atomic Weight
exposed portion on the film turns dark while the
unexposed portion is clear or light. The protons and neutrons are packed together
in the center of the atom. This forms the nucleus
The two sources of radiation used in and is referred to as the atomic weight of the
radiography are gamma rays and X-rays. atom. For example, the helium atom has two
Gamma and X-rays are exactly the same kind of protons and two neutrons in the nucleus. The
radiation, except that X-rays come from an X-ray neutrons are neutral so this gives the nucleus a +2
electrical charge. To be stable, the atom must be concerned, can hold a maximum of eight
electrically balanced; therefore, two electrons electrons. As the elements change in mass so do
with negative charges orbit the nucleus. the number of shells, which continue through M,
N, and so on until the final, O shell of the
Isotopes of basic elements are identified by heaviest elements (Figure -2).
their weight. The mass number or “A” number is
a combination of protons and neutrons (heavy Radiation Theory
part of the atom). Each isotope is then assigned
a weight equal to the total weight of protons and X and gamma rays are in the electromagnetic
neutrons in the nucleus. family of radiation. The electromagnetic
spectrum is arranged in order by energy and
Atomic Number frequency of the wave. The waves with the
lowest energy and frequency are listed at the left
Atomic numbers or “Z” numbers are the end of the chart illustrated in Figure -1, while
number of protons in the nucleus of the atom and the waves with the highest energy are at the right.
determine the type of element. For example, an Higher energy and frequency produces shorter
atom of beryllium with four protons would have wavelengths and higher frequency.
a “Z” number of 4. No other element would
have a “Z” number of 4. Radiation Characteristics

An atom of hydrogen, the simplest of all Radiation is part of our daily lives, and it is
atoms, has a nucleus containing one proton with constantly present in very small amounts. The
one orbiting electron. This hydrogen atom has main source of radiation is the sun. Fortunately
the only nucleus that does not contain neutrons. the atmosphere surrounding the earth is an ab-
sorber. However, the higher elevations receive
An atom of oxygen has eight protons and more radiation than lower regions since they are
eight neutrons in the nucleus with eight orbiting closer to the source - the sun. There are other
electrons. sources of radiation that cause slight exposure to
humans. For example, certain rocks, such as
Electron Configuration granite and some minerals, will give off low
levels of radiation.
The electrons orbit the nucleus in particular
paths known as shells. The different orbits have In order to understand how radiographs are
different energy levels and are given a letter to made, it may be well to consider the major
identify each shell. The innermost shell is characteristics of radiation. The major sources
called the K shell. It can hold a maximum of of the radiation used to produce radiographs are
two electrons. The next shell is called the L X-ray machines and radioactive isotopes. There
shell and, depending upon the element is no difference between X-rays and gamma rays
of the same energy except for their origin.
An electron volt is the amount of energy
X and gamma rays have the following equal to the energy gained by one electron when
characteristics: it is accelerated by one volt.

• They penetrate matter depending on the Example - If one electron were accelerated
radiation energy, material density, and by a potential of a 100 thousand volts (100 kV)
material thickness. machine, the electron would have energy of 100
• They travel in straight lines. thousand electron volts (100 KeV)
• They travel at the velocity of light (186,262
miles per second, 344,472 km/sec). When X-rays are produced, there is a wide
• They cause fluorescence in some materials. range of energies (wavelengths). Not all
• They ionize matter and they expose film by electrons are accelerated to the maximum
ionization. voltage set on the X-ray machine. However,
• They are scattered by a process of every gamma producing isotope emits rays of
photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and one or more specific energies.
pair production.
The greatest density difference or contrast in
• Their energy is inversely proportional to their
the radiograph, corresponding to a change of
wavelength.
section thickness in an object, is obtained when
• They are invisible and undetectable by
the lowest practical energy is used. When a
human senses.
change in energy is made, two factors have an
• They are not particulate.
affect on the X-ray film. First, the quality of
• They have no electrical charge.
radiation is changed; harder, more penetrating
• They have no rest mass or weight.
X-rays are produced if energy is increased, or
softer radiation is produced when it is reduced.
Source selection involves several consider-
Second, for fixed milliamperage (mA), an
ations. Generally, the material type and thickness
increase in kV produces an increase in intensity,
determine the radiation energy range to be used.
or more radiation, and, conversely, a decrease in
The radiation energy relates to the thickness of a
intensity, when the kV is reduced.
given material that can be penetrated within a
reasonable time. The radiation source also must
Interaction with Matter
produce the needed radiographic definition and
contrast to produce an image with acceptable
X or gamma rays penetrate light materials
sensitivity. The energy of X-rays and gamma
better than they penetrate dense materials. The
rays is expressed in:
heavier, denser materials offer greater resistance
• Thousand (Kilo) electron volts (KeV) and to X or gamma ray penetration. X or gamma
• Million (Mega) electron volts (MeV). rays (or photons) are little packets of energy
moving at the speed of light. The photons’ involves complete absorption of the photon.
energy does not just disappear; it has to be Part of the energy is expended in ejecting the
transformed in a process known as “ionization”. electron from its orbit, and the remainder imparts
One of the basic laws of nature is that energy can velocity to the electron. Remember that a photon
neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be is not a particle although it may act like one.
converted into different forms. When the photon’s energy is used, there is
nothing left.
An “ion” is a charged atom, group of atoms,
or atomic particle with either a positive or Compton Effect - The Compton Effect is a
negative charge. Removing an electron from an logical extension of the photoelectric effect
atom creates a position ion with a “plus one” except that the photon energies are usually
charge. Ions are produced when a photon (X or higher (300 KeV to 3.0 MeV) (Figure -4). In the
gamma ray) collides with an electron in the Compton Effect all of the photon’s energy
penetrated material. The photon ejects the cannot be absorbed in removing the electron, and
electron from its orbit and transfers some of its there is energy left over. The excess energy
energy to the electron. This process is called takes the form of a new photon that has a longer
ionization and creates a positive or a negative ion wavelength. The new photon moves off in a new
depending on the net electrical charge of the ion. path.

Free electrons produced by ionization absorb Pair Production - In pair production at still
some of the energy from the photon and move higher energy levels, above 1.02 MeV, the
with different velocities in different directions. photon is absorbed by the nucleus of an atom and
changes from a photon to an electron-positron
Since X-rays are generated whenever free pair (Figure -5). These particles annihilate each
electrons collide with matter, it follows that low other and their energy is converted to a pair of
energy “secondary” or scattered radiation will be photons. The energy level of each half of the
produced. pair is equal to 0 .51 MeV.

Absorption and scatter take place in three High Speed Electrons - What happens to the
ways: high speed electrons produced in the Compton
and photoelectric effect? The kinetic energy
Photoelectric Effect - The photoelectric (energy of motion) of these high speed electrons
effect (Figure -3) occurs primarily with low is absorbed in two ways:
energy photons (10 KeV to 500 KeV). In the
photoelectric effect, the electron absorbs all of 1. Additional ions are created simply by an
the photon’s energy. The photon is weakened in electron colliding with another electron. The
this process as some of its energy is absorbed in electron that is struck is knocked out of orbit,
removing an electron. The photoelectric effect but has taken some of the energy of the first
 electron. This process continues until there Value Layer” (HVL). Since one HVL reduces
is very little energy in any one electron. the intensity by a factor of ½, two HVLs will
This low energy is then given off as reduce the intensity by ½ x ½ or ¼, so the
ultraviolet rays, light, or heat. absorption is an exponential function (Figure-7).

2. The Bremsstrahlung process (Figure -6) Sometimes it is necessary to know how much
slows down the high speed electron due to shielding is required in order to reduce a
the positive field of the atomic nucleus. particular level of radiation to an acceptable
level. This may be achieved by calculating the
The energy that is absorbed by the nucleus is number of HVLs required of a particular material
in excess to the atom’s need, and this energy is (lead, concrete, brick etc.) and multiplying this
immediately radiated as an X-ray of equal or number by the thickness of material that
lower energy. If the electron were completely constitutes one HVL. The formula for
stopped, the X-ray emitted will have an energy calculating the number of HVLs is given as:
equal to the total kinetic energy of the electron. No. of HVL’s = (Log I0/It) / Log 2
The Bremsstrahlung process can cause other Where;
(low energy) X-rays which in turn can cause I0 =Intensity of incident radiation (R/hr)
additional Compton and photoelectric effects. It = Intensity of maximum permissible
This scattered (secondary) radiation is an level (R/hr)
important concern in radiograph.
Table -1 lists the HVLs (and Tenth Value
Half Value Layer - Due to the absorption, Layers) for several common materials.
there will be a relationship between the amount
of radiation incident upon a material and the Through an understanding of the HVL,
amount of radiation passing out of the material safety shielding requirements of transmitted
(transmitted). This relationship of incident to radiation through a wall can be calculated.
transmitted radiation will depend upon such
factors as: Tenth Value Layer - The tenth value layer is
the thickness of a material that reduces the
• The wavelength (penetrating power) of the intensity of radiation by 90 percent.
radiation,
• Type of absorbing material (density, grain Reduction Factor - The concept of a reduc-
structure, etc.), and tion factor is useful in computing the amount of
• Thickness of the material. shielding needed. The reduction factor is the
The thickness of a material that reduces the intensity of gamma radiation reaching a point at
intensity of transmitted radiation to half the some distance from a source with no shield,
incident radiation intensity is known as the “Half divided by the intensity reaching the same point
with some shield interposed. This reduction
factor depends upon the radiation energy and the Curie - The basic unit of measurement of
shielding material atomic number, thickness, and intensity for radioactive material is the “Curie”.
density. When a radioactive material decays, it is said to
RF = I0 / It have an “activity” or strength of one curie when
Where; 37 billion of its atoms disintegrate in one second.
RF = Reduction factor This is written 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations/second.
Io = Incident gamma intensity
It = Transmitted gamma intensity However, when comparing two different
sources, just because one has a higher activity
Radiation Measurement does not mean it is always producing more
radiation.
The basic unit used to express the quantity of
exposure from X or gamma radiation is the Example: When a Cobalt 60 atom decays it
“Roentgen”. The “Roentgen” expresses radiation emits one beta particle and two gamma rays.
exposure in air, based on the “ionizing” effect of When a Thulium 170 atom decays, ¼ of the
radiation. The ionization process creates ion atoms emits a beta particle and one gamma ray,
pairs, in which each ion pair consists of a and ¾ of the atoms emit beta particles with no
negatively charged ion and a positively charged gamma rays.
ion. The number of ion pairs can be measured by
the amount of electric current they produce in The activity of a radioisotope is normally
radiation detection equipment. The electric rated in “Curies at one foot from the source”, the
current can, in turn, activate an analog meter or whole term being shortened such that only Curie
digital counter. is used to describe the activity of a radioisotope.

Technically defined, the Roentgen is the Specific Activity - Specific activity of any
quantity of ionizing radiation that produces radioactive source is activity in curies per gram.
2,083 million ion pairs (or one electrostatic unit
of charge) in one cubic centimeter of air at Example: If 4 grams of Cobalt 60 has an
standard temperature and pressure. This unit is activity of 100 curies, then the specific activity
also defined in the SI system as Coulombs/Kg. would be 25 Curies per gram.
1 R = 2.58x10-4 C/kg.
Half-life - Definitions of three types of half-
The “milliroentgen” is often used as a mea- life:
surement of personnel exposure and is
abbreviated “mR” (“m” for milli and “R” for “Radioactive half-life”-This is the time it
Roentgen). One mR is 1/1000 of a Roentgen takes for one-half of the radioactive atoms to
(0.001 Roentgen). (1mR=0.01 mSv/hr) decay or disintegrate.
 “Biological half-life” - This is the time it In an electrically neutral atom, the number of
takes one-half of the radioactive material to be protons in the nucleus equals the number of
passed from the body as waste. electrons in orbit around it. An element owes its
unique chemical characteristics to the number of
“Effective half-life” - This is a combination protons or Atomic Number, as previously dis-
of the above two. It is the time needed to lose cussed.
one-half of the radioactive threat by a
combination of biological elimination and If the number of protons in the nucleus is
radioactive decay. altered (and hence the number of electrons), the
element will be changed chemically and become
Radioactive Isotopes another element. However, if the number of
neutrons in the nucleus is altered, no chemical
The two radioactive isotopes primarily used change takes place, and the element retains the
as sources of gamma rays in RT are: same chemical characteristics. The only change
• Cobalt 60 and that takes place will be in the element's mass.
• Iridium 192. Elements with the same number of protons but
with a different number of neutrons are called
Each radioactive isotope has a characteristic isotopes.
half-life, which is the time it takes for the source
to decay or disintegrate to one half of its original A particular element can have several iso-
activity (G Becquerel or Curies). The half-lives topes; some of these are stable and will continue
of some common radioisotopes are as follows: to exist in a neutron rich or neutron deficient
state.
Isotope ..................................................................................................................Half-live
Radium 226 (Ra-226) 1620 years Some elements, however, have isotopes that
Cesium 137 (Cs-137) 30 years are unstable. In this case the isotope will not
Cobalt 60 (Co-60) 5.3 years continue to exist in its neutron rich or neutron
Thulium 170 (Tm-170) 130 days deficient state but will try to return to a more
Iridium 192 (Ir-192) 74 days stable condition. These isotopes are called
radioisotopes, or radioactive isotopes.
The penetration of gamma rays, which is
comparable to X-rays of 500 to 2000 kV is The process of a radioisotope returning to a
particularly valuable where the thickness or stable condition is known as “disintegration”.
density of the specimen is beyond the range of This does not mean the nucleus will be
X-ray equipment generally available. destroyed, only that a particle is either ejected or
captured by the nucleus in order to stabilize it.
Characteristics of an Isotope
 With the heavier atoms, the nucleus may the balance of the nucleus, the isotope is unstable
reject an alpha particle consisting of two protons (or radioactive) and the atoms disintegrate or
and two neutrons (identical to a helium nucleus) decay into a more stable form. Radioactive atoms
and so it becomes an alpha emitter. In many disintegrate or decay by the emission of
others a beta particle consisting of an electron or radioactive particles and/or photons (gamma
a positron may be ejected, and it becomes a beta rays).
emitter. While in others an orbital electron may
be captured into the nucleus (so called “K” When Iridium 191 (A#) is placed in a reactor
capture), resulting in the formation of an and bombarded with neutrons, some of the atoms
additional neutron. of Ir. 191 absorb one neutron into their nucleus
creating the radioisotope Ir. 192. Following
In many instances these disintegrations are irradiation, the isotope disintegrates in an
accompanied by the emission of intense energy attempt to return to Ir. 191. The disintegration
from the nucleus in the form of gamma radiation. is by beta emission and “K” capture. This
This is due to the binding forces (energy) in the results in the emission of 20 discrete energy
nucleus being released as the nucleus reverts to a levels of gamma radiation.
more established state.
Radioactive Decay
Whereas the X-ray spectrum is continuous,
gamma ray spectrum is a line. The main energy The activity or strength of radioactive
levels for Ir. 192 are shown in Figure -8. material is expressed by the unit “Curie.” The
SI unit is “Becquerel”. When a radioactive
Production of Radioactive Isotopes material has an activity of one Curie, it decays or
disintegrates at a rate of 3.7 x 1010 (37 billion)
Although many isotopes of various elements times per second (1 Becquerel = 1 disintegration
occur in nature, artificial isotopes are very com- per second).
mon. Artificial isotopes are created by bombard-
ing a stable element with neutrons. This is done The quantity of radioactive material decaying
in a nuclear reactor where the atomic fission in a given time is directly proportional to the
process emits large numbers of free neutrons. As quantity present. It is therefore impossible to
a result of being exposed to neutron radiation, give the period that will be required for the
elements absorb some of these neutrons, which complete decay of a radioactive-element, as
increases the element’s “A” number or mass. theoretically this is an infinite time. In referring
to radioactive decay, therefore, the period of time
When these additional, absorbed neutrons do in which half the radioactivity is lost is taken as
not upset the proton-to-neutron ratio of the nu- the unit of measure. The curve in Figure -9
cleus, the new isotope is said to be “stable”. shows the decrease in radioactivity of Iridium
When these additional, absorbed neutrons upset 192. This graph illustrates that the half life of Ir.
 192 is 74 days. It should be remembered, only In general, X-rays produce radiographs of
the intensity of the gamma energy diminishes better quality and sensitivity than do gamma rays
with decay. Wavelength remains the same. The since an optimum energy can be selected for a
penetrating power will therefore not change. given object.
Only the time needed to produce an acceptable
radiograph will increase as the isotope decays. Theory of Generation

Generation of X-rays Orbiting electrons become excited and “boil

off” when the material is heated. This is
The generation of X-rays requires the especially true when contained in a vacuum.
following: The number of free electrons liberated in this
manner is dependent upon the material and the
• A source of electrons, temperature of the radiating source. X-rays are
• A means of accelerating the electrons to a produced when free electrons, traveling at high
high velocity, speed, collide with a target.
• A target for the impact of the electrons, and
• An evacuated atmosphere (vacuum). X-ray Spectrum

X-rays are generated when high speed, free Continuous X-rays - This range of wave-
electrons release some of their energy during lengths also occurs when a constant potential
interaction with either the nucleus or orbital type circuit is used. In a constant potential
electrons of the target atom. As the velocity of circuit the incoming alternating current is
the free electrons increase, the energy of the x- rectified and smoothed as much as possible.
rays produced will increase.
X-rays are produced when the high speed
A heated wire filament usually serves as the electrons collide with the atoms of the target
source of the electrons. A current is applied to material. They may hit the nucleus head on, hit
this tungsten wire filament that begins to emit the orbiting electrons head on, or strike several
electrons when its temperature increases. A high orbiting electrons with glancing blows. If the
positive charge on the anode causes these elec- high speed electrons hit the nucleus or the
trons to travel at high speeds. The electrons orbiting electrons head on, they give up all their
interact with a target (usually tungsten) energy as very short wavelength photons. If the
embedded into the anode. All this is contained in high speed electrons strike the orbiting electrons
a tube, consisting of a sealed glass envelope, with glancing blows, they impart some of their
which is evacuated to the highest attainable energy to each collision and emit medium and
vacuum (Figure -10). long wavelength photons.

The high energy X-rays are generally used

for the penetration of thicker or heavier materials different wavelengths and intensity, which is
(increase in kV gives decrease in wavelength) characteristic of the target materials. These
although for any given specimen, a radiograph peaks are called characteristic radiation peaks.
made with high kV will have a lower contrast The energy release is not useful in the production
than one made at a lower kV. The quality of of radiographs.
radiation is affected by changes in kV because of
the disproportional effect on intensity. Milliampere-Time or Exposure

Characteristic X-rays - If during X-ray With a given energy of X-radiation, the three
production, the high speed electron hits an orbit- factors governing exposures are the mA, time,
ing electron directly, it may give up all its and the source-to-film distance (SFD). Since
energy. Part of that energy is given up in the product of intensity (mA) and time (sec or
knocking an orbiting electron out of its shell. min) determines the amount of radiation striking
This will render the target atom electrically out the part, it is usually combined and expressed as
of balance. mA-time or exposure.

The vacancy is quickly filled, however, by an Effective vs. Actual Focal Spot Size
electron moving from an outer orbit. Since each
shell represents a different energy level, the In order to achieve good definition, it is
movement of an electron from one shell to preferable to have as small a focal spot as
another is always accompanied by a release of possible, but this imposes limitations on the
intense energy of a particular wavelength. rating of the tube. This difficulty is considerably
overcome by using the “Benson” or “line-focus”
For example, if an orbiting electron is principle. The actual focal area on the target may
knocked out of the K shell, an electron will move then be made fairly large while the projected area
from the L shell to fill the vacancy. This leaves is much smaller. When the angle between the
the L shell deficient of an electron. Its place is target face and the tube axis is about 70, the
filled by an electron moving from the M shell effective area of the focal spot is then only about
and so on, until the atom returns to electrical one third of its actual area (Figure -11).
stability.
Geometric Factors
Movement from L to K produces energy of a
different wavelength and intensity than a move- It is the goal of the radiographer to obtain the
ment from M to L, but the wavelengths and best image quality and radiographic sensitivity as
intensities will always be the same for the atoms specified by the applicable codes and standards.
of each particular material. The energy levels of Sensitivity is defined as the ability of the radio-
the K, L, and M shells for tungsten differ from graph to display the smallest change in the
those of copper and therefore produce a series of objects cross section. Radiographic sensitivity is
 influenced by two major factors: the unsharpness of a radiograph. The closer the
film is to the specimen, the greater reduction in
• Radiographic definition and the unsharpness. When this dimension is
• Radiographic contrast which is made up of increased, it has the greatest effect on
film contrast and subject contrast. unsharpness compared to the other geometric
factors (Figure -13). The film should always be
Definition placed in such a manner as to minimize the
distance from the area of interest to the film.
Radiographic definition is the sharpness or Additionally, where practical, the film should be
the line of demarcation between areas of at 90o to the primary beam of radiation.
different densities on a radiograph. If the image
is clear and sharp, the radiograph is said to have Source-to-Object Distance - Unsharpness
good definition. can be reduced when the source-to-object
distance (SOD) is increased. This should be as
Image unsharpness refers to the “fuzzy” great as practical, without unduly increasing the
edges or penumbra that diminish detail sharpness exposure time.
at the edges of the objects. Several factors
cause the unsharpness of radiographic images. Screens - When radiation reaches the film,
Most sources of image unsharpness can be only a very small portion is absorbed. An
controlled to some extent. It is always a effective means of increasing the exposure effect
challenge to the radiographer to minimize image is through the use of radiographic screens.
unsharpness in a radiograph. An image that is These are also called intensifying screens. Lead
unsharp has poor definition. foil on both sides of the film has an intensifying
effect. Lead, upon being excited by radiation,
Source-to-Film Distance--SFD (Figure -12) emits electrons. Electrons expose the film just
is a primary factor in controlling the as the X or gamma radiation does. In fact, the
unsharpness of a radiograph. SFD, which is electrons are more easily absorbed than the
sometimes referred to as target-to-film distance radiation. Also, fluorescent intensifying
(TFD), source to detector distance (SDD) or screens are occasionally used in radiography, but
focal spot to film distance (FFD) with as a rule are not used with gamma rays. These
relationship to X-ray equipment, is usually screens consist of a smooth layer of powdered
specified in codes specifications. If the SFD, fluorescent chemicals coated on a piece of
TFD, or FFD is not specified, the radiographer cardboard or plastic. Such screens may lower
must determine the appropriate distance to meet the exposure needed to produce satisfactory
the applicable quality level. radiographs by a factor of more than 100.

Object-to-Film Distance - Object-to-Film Scatter - Another variable that affects

Distance is another primary factor in controlling definition is scatter. Internal scatter results from
the interaction of the photons ( X and gamma to the unaided human eye.
rays) with the test object. As it scatters, the
radiation loses some of its energy, therefore The amount of sharpness (Ug) is determined
increasing its wavelength and it usually changes by the following equation:
direction. A second type of scatter, side scatter,
originates from radiation reflecting off walls and Ug = Fd/D
other objects nearby that are in the region of the Where:
primary radiation beam. The third type of D = Source-to-object distance,
scatter, backscatter, is caused by radiation F = Effective focal spot or source size
reflecting off objects located behind the object (maximum projected dimension)
and film. Backscatter can be identified by And;
placing a lead letter “B” on the back side of the d = Distance from the source side of the
cassette. If a light image of the “B” appears on a object to the film (the specimen thickness
dark background on the processed radiograph, when the film is in contact with specimen).
this indicates that backscatter is present and
excessive. A dark image of the “B” is In order to achieve optimum sharpness or
acceptable on the radiograph. definition, the following conditions should
occur:
Unsharpness - Some sources of unsharpness
(such as inherent graininess and internal • The radiation source is small.
scattered radiation within a specimen) are • The distance from the source to the specimen
impractical to control. However, routine is as far as practical.
techniques involve factors that must be • The distance from the specimen to film is as
considered to control unsharpness. Unsharpness close as possible.
is influenced by several geometric factors.
Whenever possible, the rays from the
A major factor of geometric unsharpness radiation source should be directed
relates to the size of the radiographic source or perpendicularly to the plane of the specimen and
focal spot. When the source or focal spot is not a film to prevent a distorted image, as illustrated in
point but a small area, the image cast is not Figure -15.
perfectly sharp. The unsharpness cannot be
completely eliminated because a “point” source Contrast
cannot be obtained (Figure -14).
Radiographic contrast is a comparison be-
It has been determined that 0.020-inch (0.5 tween film densities on different areas of the
mm) penumbra still appears sharp to the human radiograph. Radiographic contrast combines
eye. Therefore, any unsharpness over 0.020 inch subject contrast and film contrast.
(0.5 mm) will start to appear “fuzzy” or unsharp
 primarily related to the density variations on the
Those factors in the specimen and the radia- radiographic film as a function of part thickness
tion beam that affect contrast relate to subject or density changes, it (subject contrast) is also
contrast. Those factors in the film, screens and affected by energy.
processing that affect contrast relate to film con-
trast. Scatter - Radiographic contrast can also be
reduced by scatter radiation. Materials not only
Film Contrast - Film contrast, by definition, absorb radiation but scatter radiation in all
is a film’s ability to show a change in density for directions. Thus, the film receives not only
a given change in exposure. The formation of an radiation from the primary radiation source, but
image on the film depends upon the amount of also receives scattered radiation from the object
radiation received by different regions of the being radiographed, the film holder, and the
film. Film contrast is determined by the film walls and floor of the room. Scattered radiation
density, the characteristics of the film emulsion, tends to make the whole image blurry on a
intensifying screens, and processing. A radiograph. Scattering may be reduced by
discontinuity represents a thickness reduction or screens, masks, diaphragms, and filters.
a material density change within the specimen. It
appears as a darker or lighter area in the The radiographic energy, or wavelength, has
processed film. If the discontinuity is an an affect on the contrast of the radiograph. For
inclusion that is more dense than the specimen maximum contrast, the lowest practical energy
material, the image on the film is lighter at that level, or the longest wavelength radiation should
region. More radiation is absorbed by the dense be chosen. It is not normal to carry out radio-
inclusion as compared to the material. A less graphic X-ray exposures at the lowest practical
dense discontinuity appears as a darker image on kV setting because this requires longer exposure
the film. times. Many times, contrast is sacrificed in
order to minimize exposure times.
Subject Contrast - Subject contrast, by
definition, is the ratio of the radiation intensities Exposure Considerations
transmitted through two areas of the specimen.
There are various ways to determine the
A part with the uniform thickness would correct radiographic exposure required for a
have a very low subject contrast. One with a given specimen:
wide range of thickness variations would in turn
have high subject contrast. • Trial and error,
• Reference to previous exposure data, and
For a given part, high energy radiation results • Use of an exposure chart.
in low contrast and low energy results in a high
contrast image. While subject contrast is
 The first two ways are considered thickness of the specimen. Follow the chart
unscientific, but in the hands of an experienced vertically to the selected kV. Then move
technician they may be necessary, especially horizontally to the correct exposure.
when developing techniques for unusual parts.
The third has the advantage that often “first Example: 1 inch of steel at 180 kV would
time” acceptable results can be achieved simply require about 4,000 mA. At a tube current of 10
by applying the information from the exposure mA, the exposure time would be 400 seconds or
chart. 6 minutes and 40 seconds.

An exposure chart for X-rays is in the form of Gamma radiography also uses charts to
a graph relating exposure time to material thick- determine the exposure factor. The gamma ray
ness. Therefore, it is necessary to “fix” as many exposure chart is simpler than the X-ray chart
conditions as possible. These conditions listed since the gamma source is a fixed energy.
below, should be noted on the finished chart so
that it is possible to follow the correct conditions Figure -17 illustrates a sample exposure
for its use. chart for Ir-192. The exposure factor for a
gamma ray source is defined in terms of the
Fixed Conditions: intensity of the source (curies), the time of
• X-ray equipment; exposure (minutes), and square of the source-to-
• The specimen material; film distance (feet2).
• The type of film used;
• The type of screens used, if applicable; Exposure Factor = (Ci x T)/ D2
• The processing details (developer, time,
temperatures etc.); Inverse Square Law
• The source (or target) to film distance;
The intensity of radiation is inversely
• The type of filtration used, if applicable; and
proportional to the square of the distance from
the radiation source, conforming to the “Inverse
• The film density to be achieved.
Square Law”, and may be stated as:

X-ray Exposure Charts - As shown in

I1 / I2 = D22 / D21
Figure -16, the exposure is plotted on a
Or I2 = ( D21 * I1) / D22
logarithmic scale to shorten the chart in the
vertical direction. The vertical axis of the chart
Where;
shows exposure in milliampere-minutes (mAm)
I1 and I2 are the intensities at distances
or milliampere-seconds (mAs), and the material
thickness is displayed on the horizontal axis. To D1 and D2, respectively.
use this chart, move across bottom to the
 scribed as the amount of blackening of the image
and typically is between 2.0 and 4.0 for a radio-
Reciprocity Law graph. A high density area of a radiograph will
absorb more light than a low density area.
Relationships between mA time and the Density (D) can be quantitatively defined as the
inverse square law for time and distance logarithmic ratio of the light intensity incident on
calculations dictate that a known change of mA the film (Io), to the light intensity transmitted by
or distance will require a precise change of the film (It).
exposure time. This is referred to as the In equation form D= Log (I0 / It)
“Reciprocity Law” and is accurate for direct X- Where;
ray and lead screen exposures. D = Film density
Io = Incident intensity
The intensifying effect of screens requires It = Transmitted intensity
modified exposure times to ensure comparable
radiographic density. Each particular type of Over the useful density range, the
screen will have an intensification factor and, logarithmic ratio is proportional to the logarithm
using the factor, the new exposure times may be of exposure, and the numerical value of a series
calculated by applying the formula: of densities may be added together to give the
total density. It is essential to be able to
Exposure time with screens = Exposure time measure densities accurately. For this purpose a
without screens / Intensification Factor special instrument called a “densitometer” is
used.
The intensification factor using lead screens
is about 3 for X-rays and about 2 for gamma rays. The principle of this instrument is explained
by the following example. If the intensity of the
Film Density incident light on a selected area of the film, is
1,000 units, and if the intensity of the transmitted
Film density, which is a function of the light from the same area is 100 units, then its
amount of radiation exposure and development, density is:
refers to the degree of film blackening. The
amount of light transmitted through a radiograph D = Log (I0 / It) = Log (1000 / 100) = 1
measures film density, which can be quantified
by comparing it to a film strip with various When the transmitted light intensity is 1/10th
density steps or measured with an instrument of the incident light then the D = 1. If it is
called a densitometer. 1/100th, then, D = 2. If it is 1/1000, then, D = 3.

Density values for an acceptable radiograph Film Characteristic Curves

are specified by the codes. This is usually de-
 Although films (Figure -18) may be com- factors must be known:
pared qualitatively by describing them as slow or
fast, low contrast, etc., a quantitative • The type and thickness of material to be ex-
examination is necessary if precise meanings are amined,
to be given to these terms. This is achieved by • The activity of the isotope (by reference to its
measuring the densities produced by a range of decay curve),
accurately known exposures and plotting one • The equivalent material to steel thickness,
against the other. The resulting curve is known as • The desired source-to-film distance,
a “characteristic curve”, “sensitometric curve”, • The quality of the radiograph that is required,
or “H&D curve”. and
• The type and speed of the film.
Exposure vs. Density

For any given exposure change, density will

not change in a proportional or linear fashion.
This is due to the non linearity of the Equipment
characteristic curve of the film described earlier.
X-ray Machines
Gamma Ray Exposure
A typical X-ray control panel (Figure -19)
In general, gamma radiography is similar to will usually consist of the following controls:
X-radiography. The choice of the isotope will
depend upon such factors as the dimensions,
• mA - expressed as milliamperes. Controls
shape and material of the specimen. Each source
filament current and free electrons,
is supplied with a decay curve for its first two
• kV - expressed as kilovolts and permits ad-
half life periods, which will show its activity at
justment of voltage between cathode and
any date during that time.
anode,
• Timer - calibrated in minutes and controls the
The intensity of radiation will be low with a
length of exposure,
source of little activity; therefore, exposure will
• Power on-off switch - controls application of
be relatively long. The time can be reduced by
power to X-ray unit, and
using a faster film, but at the expense of contrast
• Indicator lamp - indicates when the
which will be low anyway, due to the low
equipment is energized and X-rays are being
absorption of the short wavelength radiation.
produced.
Faster film also has less definition.

An X-ray tube (Figure -10) consists of anevacuated

Before an exposure can be calculated, certain
glass envelope into which are sealed
an anode and a cathode. The anode usually target. This has the added advantage of having a
consists of a solid block of copper, with its high melting point and is therefore, not affected
forming an angle of about 70 to the tube axis. greatly by the heat generated.
A thin disc of tungsten is inserted into the anode
face to form the target. A filament is mounted The heat liberated by electron bombardment
in the end of the cathode facing the target. Any is dissipated by the copper anode into which the
increase in current heats the filament increasing target material is mounted. This in turn may be
the number of electrons liberated. cooled by the circulation of oil or water through
its interior.
By applying a high potential across the tube,
it is possible to accelerate a beam of electrons Limitations are imposed upon the electrical
from the cathode to the target. The actual area rating of the tube both by the efficiency of the
on which they impinge is termed the “focal heat dissipation and by the size of the focal point.
spot”. The size of this focal spot will depend on There is therefore a maximum value of tube
the shape of the filament and the form of the current for the continuous operation of any one
focusing cup in which it is mounted. X-ray unit. If very short exposure times are
used, then a higher maximum tube current can be
The flow of electrons from cathode to anode used, as there is time for the target to cool
constitutes the “tube current” which in most between exposures. The maximum available
industrial X-ray equipment is very small, being “time on” period to “time off” period for any X-
measured in milliamperes. Thus the tube ray set is known as the duty cycle.
current can be controlled by means of a simple
resistance or choke in the filament circuit. Isotope Exposure Devices

The speed at which the electrons travel from Since there are many different types of
the cathode to the anode is controlled by the radioisotope cameras and related equipment, it is
voltage applied across the tube. The voltage beyond the scope of this chapter to describe them
required to make the electrons travel at sufficient all. Figure -20 is an example of camera and
speed to produce X-rays useful for radiography accessories. Nevertheless, proper operating
is very high and is measured in kilovolts. instructions and emergency procedures should be
written by any company using a radioisotope and
When the electrons are brought to an abrupt a fully qualified Radiation Safety Officer (RSO)
halt or slowed down by the target, a small should be responsible for safe operation. The
amount of their kinetic energy, (2 to 3 percent) is name of the RSO should be displayed in a
released as X-rays. Most remaining kinetic prominent place so that all personnel will know
energy is converted to heat. The efficiency of who to contact (and how) should any advice be
this process is increased by using an element of required.
high atomic number, such as tungsten, for the
 Three types of radiographic screens enable
more effective use of radiation: lead, fluorescent,
Radiographic Film and fluorometallic. Lead screens are the most
common to be used in industrial radiography.
Various types of film are manufactured for Fluorescent and fluorometallic screens are not
industrial radiography. The film types offer typically used for Code applications. The major
differences in contrast, speed, and sensitivity. advantage of the two latter screens is the signifi-
The slowest exposure films provide better detail cant reduction exposure time.
and sensitivity because of their finer grain. The
exposure speed of the finest grain film is The lead screen consists of a thin lead sheet
approximately 16 times slower than the fastest (usually 0.005 to 0.010 in. [0.125 to -.25 mm])
film. Film selection is usually based upon the mounted on a cardboard or plastic base. The
most economical film type that consistently lead screens are placed in both front and back of
provides the sensitivity required by the the unexposed film with the lead surfaces in
applicable code or standard. contact with the film. The lead screen in front of
the film serves two important purposes:

Composition • It absorbs low energy or scatter radiation.

• It increases the photographic action on the
Industrial radiographic films are composed film emulsion.
of an emulsion, which is a suspension of silver
halides in gelatin, coated on a transparent, blue- The lead screen in back of the film, often
tinted, non-flammable, pliable base (polyester or thicker (0.010 in.[0.25 mm]), serves to absorb
acetate). It is coated on both sides of the base to the backscatter radiation that is lower energy
provide maximum speed and contrast in the radiation and also increases the photographic
film, and to allow the film to be processed and action on the film emulsion.
dried in the shortest possible time (Figure -21).
Exposure of the film to radiation results in the Lead screens must be free of any
formation of what is called the latent image. The irregularities that can produce indications on the
mechanism of exposure is beyond the scope of radiograph and which are identified as artifacts
this text but suffice it to say that the electrons (false indications). Screens that have been
emitted by an absorption event modify the damaged and cannot be properly corrected
structure of individual silver halide crystals so should be discarded.
that upon development they are preferentially
reduced to (dark) metallic silver. Film Processing

Lead Screens Once a radiographic exposure has been

made, the film is processed so that the “latent”
image produced by the radiation is made visible. on the film from tank to tank, and the rollers at
Three the wash tank exist to remove most of the water,
processing solutions are essential to convert an so that the film is in a damp-dry condition
exposed film into a useful developed radiograph: entering the drying compartment.
developer, fixer, and wash water.
Replenishment of the solutions is done auto-
Automatic processing units are available, if matically and is usually controlled by the
the throughput of film is sufficient to justify such quantity of film being processed.
expensive equipment. When properly maintained
and operated, these units result consistently in With all darkroom activity, cleanliness is of
radiographs of superior quality to those produced the utmost importance, especially with automatic
by manual processing. processors. Regular maintenance following the
manufacturers’ recommendations should be
Manual System closely followed.

The most widely used processing unit is

simply a large water tank, thermostatically
heated, into which are placed smaller tanks Techniques
containing the processing chemicals. The
processing sequence is development, stop, fix, Single Wall Exposure / Single WallViewing
wash, wetting agent, and then dry (Figure -22).
For cylinders of large internal diameter the single
Automatic System wall technique is employed (Figure -24).

Automatic processors can produce consistent This technique is suitable for 360, rod
quality radiographs in short periods of time (i.e., anode, and gamma ray sources where the source
7 to 14 minutes), as opposed to the usual 1 hour is positioned at the center axis of the cylinder.
required for manual processing. The shorter Films wrapped around outer surfaces are
processing times are due to elevated simultaneously exposed. For flat parts, the
temperatures, and the solutions used in automatic source is on one side of the part and the film is on
processors are of a different concentration than the opposite side.
those used for manual processing.
Double Wall Exposure / Double Wall
Most processors have a roller type of Viewing
mechanism (Figure -23). The stop bath and
wetting agent tanks are eliminated due to Welds in pipe and tubes 3-1/2 inches and less in
squeegee rollers at the exit of each tank. The nominal size (diameter) may be radiographed
squeegee rollers reduce the retention of solution
using the double wall technique where the radia-
tion passes through both walls and both walls are Film techniques with two or more films of
evaluated (Figure -25). An image quality the same or different speeds in the same film
indication (IQI), based on the single wall holder are used for either single or composite
thickness plus the weld reinforcement (if film viewing, providing that the applicable
present), is placed on the source side of the upper radiographic quality level and film density
wall, on top of a shim approximately equal to requirements are achieved for the area of interest.
twice the weld reinforcement. As an alternate, Multiple film techniques are beneficial in that
the same IQI and shim may be placed on the top there are at least two images of the object making
of a like section that is placed adjacent to the easy disposition of any artifacts. This also
weld being radiographed. When impractical to provides greater coverage, especially if the part
do the above, the IQI may be placed on top of a has varying section thicknesses.
block that is approximately equal to twice the
wall thickness plus twice the weld Coverage
reinforcement.
Areas to be examined should be identified on
Double Wall Exposure/Single Wall the drawing by using symbols. If the number of
parts to be examined and the amount of coverage
For welds in pipe and tubes greater than 3-1/2 of each part is not specified, all parts should be
inches in outside diameter, the weld closest to the examined and receive 100 percent radiographic
film can be reviewed (Figure -26). An IQI, coverage. There must be sufficient overlap in
corresponding to the single wall thickness plus the event the part is longer than the film.
any single-wall weld reinforcement, is
placed adjacent to the weld on the inner wall on Use of Blocks and Step Wedges
top of a shim equal to the weld reinforcement.
When that is not possible, the same IQI and shim When shims are used with penetrameters in
may be placed on the bottom of the inner wall of the RT of welds (Figure -27), or when the
a like section of a tube placed adjacent to the penetrameters are placed on separate blocks, the
weld being radiographed. When a like section shims or blocks should be made of
of the tube is unavailable, the IQI may be placed radiographically similar materials in a given
on a block adjacent to the weld being materials group.
radiographed. The block thickness should be
equivalent to twice the wall thickness plus any Penetrameter Placement
single wall weld reinforcement. The top of the
block should not be lower than the bottom of the As a general rule, penetrameters are placed:
inner wall of the tube.
• No closer to the film than the top surface of
Multiple Film Techniques the part,
 • No closer to the X-ray beam axis than the that is radiographically similar to the material
extreme discontinuity expected, being examined and whose thickness is usually a
• So as not to obscure the area of interest, and specified percentage (i.e. 1, 2, or 4 percent) of the
• On shims so that the density through the specimen thickness. Three holes are drilled into
penetrant and shim is similar to area of inter- the IQI with diameters equal to 1, 2, and 4 times
est. the thickness of the IQI.

Figures - 28 to 31 give an extract from ASTM and ASME IQIs have an

ASME Section V, Article 2, which shows exam- identification number that represents the
ples of penetrameter and shim placement. thickness of the penetrameter in thousandths of
an inch. Figure -32 shows an IQI that would be
Structural Welds used on a part that is 0.25-inch thick, if the IQI
thickness is based on 2 percent of the specimen
The standard technique for structural welds thickness. The number “5” represents
requires the beam of radiation to be directed to thousandths of an inch; therefore, the actual
the middle of the section under examination and thickness of the IQI is 0.005 inch, which
should be normal to the material surface. represents 2 percent of the 0.250-inch part being
Special examinations for certain discontinuities radiographed. Based on the hole diameter
would best be revealed by a different angle of the perceptible on the radiograph, the radiographic
beam (e.g., lack of fusion). The exposure may quality level and equivalent sensitivity can be
be made with the beam directed along the fusion determined.
face.
Wire IQIs
Radiographic Quality
The wire type image quality indicator
Image Quality Indicators consists of six wires of increasing diameters
mounted in a plastic tab and placed on the
The image quality indicator (IQI), or specimen (see Figure 33). The ability to see a
penetrameter, is a device whose image on a specified wire on the radiographic image is an
radiograph is used to establish the radiographic indication that the required sensitivity has been
quality level (sensitivity) of the technique used. met.
It is not intended for use in judging the size or in
establishing acceptance limits of discontinuities. Penetrameter Requirements

Hole Type IQIs Penetrameters are not normally required

when:
The hole type IQI is usually a shim of metal
• Examining assemblies for debris.
• Conducting radiography for discontinuity will normally detect penetrameter alterations by
removal or grind out. The final acceptance virtue of the extremely high image density that
radiography should include an IQI as the penetrameter hole shows. The majority of
required. penetrameter sensitivity requirements are very
• Examining to show details of component close to the limits of perceptibility. They are
parts or assemblies. there to ensure that the system is meeting mini-
• While examining for corrosion, to show side mum requirements.
wall contour in pipes and other components.
Improper techniques used to improve image
Density quality include locating the IQI on the film side
of the object without indicating its location with
For single film viewing, the density should a lead letter “F”; placing the IQI closer to the
be between 2.0 and 4.0 (inclusive) in the area of center of the beam than the area of interest;
interest for gamma radiography and 1.8 to 4.0 for changing the marking on the IQI to falsify its
X-radiography. Where superimposed film thickness; or enhancing the hole image on the
viewing is used, the density of the superimposed film emulsion using a pencil or black felt pen.
films should be between 2.6 and 4.0 (inclusive)
in the area of interest, and each individual film Radiographic Film Identification
must not have a density below 1.3 in the area of
interest. The Code also requires that the density In order to avoid confusion and assure trace-
in the area of interest fall within +30 percent to- ability, all radiographs must have proper
15 percent of the density through the identification and meet the following
penetrameter. In the 2001 edition of the ASME requirements:
Code, the +30 percent variations are waived if a
shim is used with the penetrameter and the • Film must be related to specific part or area.
minimum density does not apply to the • Film position must be accurately indicated.
penetrameter as long as the proper sensitivity is • Identification markings should not be re-
obtained. peated.
There are several acceptable approaches that
In any event, the densities of the area of are used to accomplish this including:
interest cannot be acceptable unless they fall
within 1.8 to 4.0 (X-ray) or 2.0 to 4.0 (gamma • Flashing information of film,
ray). • Lead tape with numbers/letters embossed,
and
Improper Use of Penetrameters • Lead numbers/letters affixed to a designated
area on the part.
An observant and qualified film interpreter
 The primary goal of the identification is to evaluate the radiographic image, ideal viewing
permit exact locations to be determined from the conditions and suitable equipment are absolutely
radiograph. Actual locations of discontinuities necessary.
must be able to be accurately positioned using
the related location marker’s position. High Intensity Illuminators

Film Viewing Considerations A radiograph that meets the density require-

ments of the Code will permit only a small frac-
Viewing conditions are of utmost tion of the incident light to pass through it.
importance. The examination of the finished
radiograph should be done under conditions A film that permits 1 percent of the incident
which afford maximum visibility of detail light to be transmitted will have a density of 2.0.
together with a maximum of comfort and a
minimum of fatigue for the interpreter. Following the same procedure, it can be seen
Subdued lighting in the viewing area is that a film density of 3 permits only 0.1 percent
preferable to total darkness. The room lighting of the incident light to pass through and a density
must be arranged so that there are no reflections of 4.0, a mere 0.01 percent.
from the surface of the film being interpreted.
Adequate table surface must be provided on Typically, radiographic density requirements
either side of the viewer to accommodate film through the area of interest range between 2.0 (1
and to provide a writing surface for recording the percent light transmission) and 4.0 (0.01 percent
interpretation. Quick and easy access to a light transmission). This explains the need for a
densitometer, reference radiographs, applicable high intensity viewing light.
codes, standards, and specifications should also
be provided. In addition, it is important for the There are many types and styles of high
film interpreter to be free of distractions, in order intensity illuminators, although they are
to maintain concentration. generally classified into four groups: spot
viewers, strip film viewers, area viewers, and
If the interpretation of the radiographic combination spot and area viewers.
image is to be meaningful, it is essential that
proper viewing equipment, in good working Spot viewers provide a limited field of
condition, be used. If slight density variations illumination, typically 3 to 4 inches in diameter.
in the radiographs are not observed, rejectable These viewers are usually the most portable and
conditions may go unnoticed. In many cases, least expensive.
various types of discontinuities are barely
distinguishable even with the use of optimized The strip film viewer permits interpretation
techniques and fine-grained film. In order to of film including 3.5 by 17 inches, 4.5 by 17
optimize the interpreter's ability to properly inches, 4 by 10 inches, 5 by 7 inches, and the 35
mm or 70 mm sizes. The viewing area is over the area used for viewing. This is
rectangular and the area of illumination may be accomplished with a diffusing glass, usually
adjusted to conform to the film dimension by positioned between the light source and the
employing metal or cardboard masks. viewing area, or with a white plastic screen at the
front of the viewer.
The area viewers are designed to accommo-
date large films up to 14 by 17 inches. The Intensity Control
illumination is generally provided by fluorescent
lights or a bank of photo-flood bulbs. The fluo- Another essential feature of the illuminator is
rescent light intensity may not have suitable the variable intensity control. This permits
brightness to permit effective examination subdued intensity when viewing lower densities,
through the higher densities and this could result and maximum intensity as required for the high
in a serious limitation. density portions of the radiograph.

The combination spot and area viewers Masks

provide the interpreter with spot capability while
allowing the viewing of a large area of film. A Masks can be extremely helpful when
switch determines which light source will be attempting to evaluate a small portion of a larger
activated. radiograph, or when the radiograph is physically
small. The objective is to illuminate that
Heat portion of the radiograph identified as the area of
interest, while masking other light from the eyes
Since light of high intensity also generates of the interpreter. Some spot viewers are
significant amounts of heat, it is necessary that equipped with an iris diaphragm that permits the
the illuminator have a means of dissipating or spot size to be varied with the simple adjustment
diverting the heat to avoid damaging the of a lever. This feature is especially helpful
radiographic film while viewing. This is when small areas or fine details must be
accomplished in most cases by a cooling fan. examined.

Light sources in typical illuminators consist of Precautions

one or more photo-flood bulbs. Other light
sources such as flood lights and tungsten halogen The illuminator's front glass or screen which
bulbs are also used. touches the film and should always be clean and
free of blemishes on both sides. Scratches,
Diffusion nicks, dirt, or other imperfections on the front
glass or screen will cast shadows on the
To eliminate variation in the intensity of the radiograph, causing unnecessary distractions.
light, it is also important that the light be diffused
 Another precaution will help minimize film
scratches. The front of the viewer should be Other Viewing Accessories
carefully examined to ensure that there are no
sharp edges or other obstructions; these could Additional accessories that aid the interpreter
cause scratches to the sensitive surface of the and should be available in the film reading area,
radiograph as it is moved or positioned on the include (but are not limited to):
viewer.
• Supply of wax pencils for marking the film;
Magnifiers • Rulers (the most appropriate would be clear,
flexible plastic);
Normally, radiographs can be effectively • A small flashlight to reflect light off the
evaluated without the aid of magnification de- radiographic film to assist in the
vices. There may be occasions, however, when identification of surface artifacts such as
such devices are helpful. For example, if the scratches, roller marks, dirt, etc.;
object being radiographed contains very small • Gloves, usually cotton or nylon, to minimize
discontinuities, magnification may be essential. direct contact between the film and the
This application will generally require the use of fingers of the interpreter; and
fine-grained film that can be suitably magnified. • Charts, tables, and other technical aids that
Some of the coarser grained films are difficult to will assist in the prompt establishment of
view with magnification because the graininess density range, determination of geometric
is also enlarged. This can make discernment of unsharpness, and other data relating to the
slight density changes nearly impossible. applicable codes or specifications.

There is a wide assortment of magnifiers Interpretation of Radiographs

appropriate for the evaluation of radiographs.
The most common is the hand held magnifying Radiographic interpretation requires
glass, available in many shapes, sizes and characterization of the images on the radiograph.
powers. For convenience, a gooseneck Determining the cause of these indications
magnifier may be employed. Because this requires a thorough understanding of the material
magnifier is self-standing and attached to a and fabrication processes plus extensive
weighted metal base, it leaves the interpreter's experience in the viewing of radiographs.
hands free during use. One device that offers
magnification and measuring capabilities is a Radiographic interpretation is a judgment
comparator with an etched glass reticule. based on the location, size, and shape of an indi-
cation to determine its cause. Obviously the
If any form of magnification is employed, it skills and experience of the interpreter play a key
should be done with caution and limited to only role.
those applications where it is necessary.
 Scratches or Abrasions - These are
False Indications (Artifacts) damages to the emulsion, which are caused by
negligent handling.
A number of indications due to incorrect
storage, handling, or processing can occur in a Static Marks - Static marks are caused by
finished radiograph. They may make the release of static electricity, which exposes the
interpretation impossible. emulsion. They form a tree or fern-like appear-
ance. Once again extreme care is required when
It is worth noting that a great many artifacts handling, especially if the film has been stored
appear on one side of the film only. Therefore, under conditions of low humidity,
if an artifact is suspected, the film should be
examined on both sides, using reflected light. Screen Marks - These are thin lines, which
Images that appear on one side only cannot be are caused by scratches on the intensifying
associated with conditions in the object being screens.
radiographed.
Uneven Development - This is caused by
There are a number of artifacts; the following lack of agitation during development.
are some of the more common types: Sometimes this shows up as streaks running
parallel to the side of the film that was vertical
Pressure marks - These are lighter density during development, especially if it has only
areas, if the film experiences pressure before been agitated in one direction.
exposure; or darker, if after exposure.
Reticulation - Gelatin is affected by sudden
Finger Marks - These are caused during temperature changes and wrinkling of the surface
handling. In the areas affected, development is may occur. Fine reticulation can be mistaken
retarded, thereby producing light areas on the for graininess because it has a fine network or
radiograph that resemble fingerprints. leather- like appearance. It will not normally
occur if the temperature difference between the
Developer Marks - These marks are caused tanks is less than about 20F.
by developer being splashed onto the film before
development. Developer marks usually appear Fog - This is usually described as a density
as areas of increased density on the radiograph. change not due to deliberate exposure. It can be
overall or localized. It may be due to:
Fixer Marks - These are splashes of fixer
solution on the film prior to development, which • A faulty safe light,
causes clear areas even where the film has been • Accidental exposure to ionizing radiation
exposed. during storage,
 • Aging of the film,
• Faulty processing - excessive time, increased Undercut - Undercut shows as an increase in
agitation or temperature, etc. It can also be density adjacent to the weld toe or root smoothly
“dichroic”, which occurs when fixation and changing across the weldment and parallel with
development are allowed to continue the weld edges.
simultaneously. It is recognized by a
reddish tint when viewed by transmitted light Lack of Penetration - Incomplete
and a green appearance under reflected light. penetration typically appears as a sharp, dark,
The use of stop bath will prevent this continuous or intermittent line at the root of the
completely, weld. This condition results when the root bead
• Water spots - caused by droplets of water does not totally penetrate and cause fusion.
remaining on the film or running off the
hangers. The use of a wetting agent should Lack of Fusion - Lack of fusion normally
prevent this; however, care should be taken shows as a thin, straight dark line parallel to the
when putting wet film into the drying weld. Lack of fusion occurring between the
cabinet. weld and the side wall generally appears straight
on one side and irregular on the other side. It
Radiographic Images of will typically appear some distance from the
Discontinuities weld centerline.

Weld Discontinuities Root Concavity - Root concavity is a broad,

denser region following along the root area,
The following is a partial list of weld which is the result of insufficient weld metal in
discontinuities and their appearance the root.
radiographically:
Root Convexity - Root convexity is an
Cracks - Cracks normally show as dark, excessive protrusion of the root that results in a
irregular, wavy or jagged lines and may have lighter region; this is opposite of root concavity.
fine, hairline indications branching off the main
crack indication. Tungsten Inclusions - Tungsten inclusions
appear as very light, almost white, indications
Slag - Slag inclusions appear as dark because of tungsten's higher radiation
irregular shapes of varying lengths and widths. absorption.

Porosity - Porosity shows as rounded well- Casting Discontinuities

defined high-density spots with well-defined
contours. Shrinkage - Shrinkage appears as irregularly
shaped zones of varying densities, which often
appear to be interconnected. smooth outline image.

Cold Shuts - Cold shuts appear as faint lines Gas Voids - Gas voids appear as large,
or linear areas of varying length due to the inter- rounded, dark indications, normally with smooth
ruption of the metal flow, resulting in partial edges.
freezing. It subsequently forms an oxide
coating on the surface, which prevents fusion as Gas Wormhole - This is a tube-like gas
the incoming molten metal continues to fill the cavity and can appear either as a rounded or an
mold. elongated image, dependent on the angle of
view.
Centerline Shrinkage - The radiographic
appearance is of a continuous, irregular zone Unfused Chaplets - A chaplet is a very thin
usually branching or in the form of a network. metallic support for a core and is generally
melted by, and absorbed within, the molten
Micro Shrinkage - The radiographic metal. When this does not happen, the image of
appearance is a slightly more dense area and will the unmelted chaplet can be easily distinguished
generally look cloudy or mottled. In some as a dark circular image approximately the same
cases, the fine network may occur in layers, diameter as the core support on the radiograph.
which produces dark streaks on the radiograph.
Code Considerations
Hot Tears - Hot tears appear as dark, ragged,
defined irregular lines and may have a number of In all NDE methods, the Code should be used
branches of varying densities. in the preparation of procedures. Contractual
requirements usually dictate the specific
Inclusions - Indication of irregular shape and requirements that are applicable to a particular
size result from entrapped low or high density component.
material such as slag or sand.
The radiographic interpreter must be capable
Cracks - Cracks normally appear as dark, of interpreting and applying specified acceptance
irregular, intermittent or continuous lines, criteria and be knowledgeable in the technique
usually quite well defined. used to make the exposure and its effects on the
image. To properly determine technique
Gas Porosity - These are very small cavities acceptability, the interpreter should know the
and appear radiographically as small rounded, component or part and understand the
widely distributed, dark images. manufacturing process.

Gas Hole - This is a larger cavity, which Based on this information parameters needed to
appears radiographically as a dark, rounded, determine technique acceptability include:
• Thickness of part determines the
penetrameter requirements and
required/permitted radiation energy; Safety Concerns
• Reinforcement determines the need for
shims; The penetrating characteristics of ionizing
• Welding process provides an indication of radiation that is so useful in examining materials
what types of discontinuities are expected; and components for internal flaws also create
• Configuration has a direct bearing on expo- safety concerns. Because radiation exposure to
sure/viewing technique selected (i.e., double individual workers and the public is potentially
wall, single wall, panoramic, etc.); hazardous, it must be controlled. Radiation areas
• Accessibility affects technique (e.g., place- must be restricted to properly monitored
ment of penetrameters); and personnel who have been trained and qualified to
• Surface finish may aid or hinder interpreta- use radiation producing equipment.
tion.
Additional requirements are imposed for
The radiographic interpreter should also be isotope radiography:
knowledgeable of the effects of the following • Radioactive material license is required.
radiographic variables on the radiographic • Transportation and storage of radioactive
image: materials must be controlled.

• Source size, Advantages and Limitations of

• Source-to-film distance, Radiographic Examination
• Source placement,
Advantages
• Film placement,
• Radiographic coverage required,
The key advantages of RT are:
• Film selection,
• Can be used with most materials,
• Screens, and
• Provides a permanent record,
• Film processing technique and processing
• Reveals the internal nature of structures,
variables.
• Discloses fabrication errors,
• Reveals structural discontinuities, and
Radiographic film interpretation is more than
knowing and understanding the applicable codes • Provides relatively high sensitivity.
and standards and the proper application of
acceptance standards. A knowledge of the Limitations
processes, forming techniques, etc., as well as
RT, in general, is essential.
 RT has the following limitations: Imaging Detectors
• It may provide incomplete coverage on
specimens of complex geometry. Charge Couple Devices (CCD’s)
• The specimen must lend itself to two-side
accessibility. Charged couple devices are typically small
• Laminar and tight angular discontinuities are and contain high pixel densities. Combined
difficult if not impossible to detect. with micro-focus x-ray equipment, they are
• Safety considerations imposed by X and capable of 50 m or smaller with a display of
gamma rays must be considered. 4096 X 4096 pixels. CCD’s are made from a
• RT is relatively expensive. crystalline silicon structure and typically are
• Discontinuity orientation must be favorable restricted in sizes up to about 6 inches in
to the beam of radiation. diameter or less which restricts the field of view.
. CCD’s have excellent light collection efficiency
Digital Radiographic Imaging when “tiling” is not used to increase the field of
view.
Introduction to Digital Radiography
Amorphous Selenium Panels
Digital imaging uses various detectors for the
collection of the x-ray and forming the digital The amorphous selenium panels use a thin
image. Some of the typical detectors in use film transistor readout circuitry combined with a
today are the real time systems using charged selenium photoconductive layer of material as a
coupled devices (ccd), amorphous selenium means to detect the x-rays. Once the selenium
panels, amorphous silicon panels, storage layer converts the x-rays to electron hole pairs it
phosphor imaging plates and linear diode arrays. is processed and sent to the thin film transistor
The ability to develop these into useful tools in then provides the readout of the charge on a pixel
the industrial radiography field can be partially by pixel basis. The amorphous selenium panel
credited to the improvements in the computer uses direct conversion and due to the high
systems used today. In the 1980’s, a 512 X 512 voltage bias field applied to the selenium layer it
pixel image created problems for display and creates a vertical field line. This field line is
storage but today we can typically handle 1500 X parallel to the x-ray beam and prevents the
2000 pixel images with relatively inexpensive charge from lateral scattering and limiting the
computer systems. The main advantages of the scatter. This effect allows for high resolution of
digital systems currently being used are easier the image.
and cheaper archival than film, lower cost than
film, no chemicals to process the detectors and Amorphous Silicon Panels
lower of costs of radiograph production.
Amorphous Silicon panels also use a thin
film transistor but are combined with a
amorphous silicon layer which has a phosphor field that reaches the array. The linear arrays
layer deposited on the silicon layer. The scan the image one line or a small group of lines
conversion process is not as good as the CCD but at a time. The image is rebuilt in the computer
is capable of a much greater field of view with processor after all the scan lines are received by
this arrangement. The size of the pixel in both the processor.
the selenium and silicon panels is limited by the
use of the thin film transistors and the data and ASME Section V Procedural
scan lines required for the operation of circuitry. Requirements

ASME Section V requires that the use of

Storage Phosphors digital image acquisition requires that procedures
address the following information;
Storage phosphors are a flexible material that • Image digitizing parameters such as
has a photostimulable phosphor material called modulation transfer function (MTF),
europium activated barium fluorobromide line pair resolution, contrast
(BaFBr:Eu) applied to the flexible base. When sensitivity, and dynamic range
exposed to radiation the phosphor material • Image display parameters such as
phosphoresces but some of the charge is retained format, contrast and magnification
in the phosphor material. This retained charge • Image processing parameters that are
is released when stimulated by a infrared or red used
laser light. This released charge is of the same • Storage information such as
emission wavelength as the initial was released identification, data compression and
when struck with the x-rays. This screen must media
be processed through the laser scanner to release
the charge and transmit the electrical signal is System Performance Measurements
sent to the computer processor to store and
rebuild the image of the part. These systems A system calibration must be performed
have good spatial resolution and contrast measuring the MTF, contrast sensitivity and the
sensitivity and are used widely in production dynamic range of the system. A system
radiography. performance shall be performed and monitored
at the beginning and end of each shift to
Linear Arrays minimize the probability of time dependant
performance variations. This requires that an
Linear arrays are detectors that have pixels in optical line pair pattern is run to verify the MTF
one dimension or a small rectangular array or and that the optical density step wedge or
pixels in 32 X 1024 arrangements. Linear contrast sensitivity gage (SE 1647) be exposed to
arrays are collimated to match the size of the determine the contrast sensitivity.
detector which dramatically reduces the scatter
Table 1 Half Value Layer (HVL) and Tenth Value Layer (TVL) Tables
Figure 1 Electromagnetic Spectrum
Figure 2 Structure of the Atom
Figure 3 Photoelectric Effect
Figure 4 Compton Effect
Figure 5 Pair Production
Figure 6 Bremsstrahlung (Braking) X-rays
Figure 7 Half Value Layers
Figure 8 Energy Spectrum for Ir 192
Figure 9 Ir 192 Decay Chart
Figure 10 Typical X-ray Tube
Figure 11 The Benson Focus Principle
Figure 12 Effect of Source-to-Film Distance
Figure 13 Effect of Object-to-Film Distance
Figure 14 Effect of Source or Focal Spot Size
Figure 15 Effect of Source Location
Figure 16 Exposure Chart
Figure 17 Exposure Chart for Iridium 192 Source
Figure 18 Characteristic Curves
Figure 19 Typical X-ray Control Panel
Figure 20 Typical Isotope Camera
Figure 21 Film Structure
Figure 22 Manual Film Processing Steps
Figure 23 Automatic Processor
Figure 24 Single Wall Exposure/Single Wall Viewing
Figure 25 Double Wall Exposure/Double Wall Viewing
Figure 26 Double Wall Exposure/Single Wall Viewing
Figure 27 Use and Location of Shims
Figure 28 Use and Location of Penetrameters (Example 1)
Figure 29 Use and Location of Penetrameters (Example 2)
Figure 30 Use and Location of Penetrameters (Example 3)
Figure 31 Use and Location of Penetrameters (Example 4)
Figure 32 ASME/ASTM IQI
Figure 33 Wire Type IQI