computers

Article
The Integration of the Internet of Things, Artificial Intelligence,
and Blockchain Technology for Advancing the Wine
Supply Chain
Nino Adamashvili 1, * , Nino Zhizhilashvili 2 and Caterina Tricase 1

1 Department of Economics, The University of Foggia, 71121 Foggia, Italy; [Link]@[Link]

2 Faculty of Informatics and Control Systems, The Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi 0175, Georgia;
n_jijilashvili@[Link]
* Correspondence: [Link]@[Link]

Abstract: The study presents a comprehensive examination of the recent advancements in the field
of wine production using the Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and Blockchain
Technology (BCT). The paper aims to provide insights into the implementation of these technologies
in the wine supply chain and to identify the potential benefits associated with their use. The study
highlights the various applications of IoT, AI, and BCT in wine production, including vineyard
management, wine quality control, and supply chain management. It also discusses the potential
benefits of these technologies, such as improved efficiency, increased transparency, and reduced
costs. The study concludes by presenting the framework proposed by the authors in order to
overcome the challenges associated with the implementation of these technologies in the wine supply
chain and suggests areas for future research. The proposed framework meets the challenges of lack
of transparency, lack of ecosystem management in the wine industry and irresponsible spending
associated with the lack of monitoring and prediction tools. Overall, the study provides valuable
insights into the potential of IoT, AI, and BCT in optimizing the wine supply chain and offers a
comprehensive review of the existing literature on the study subject.

Citation: Adamashvili, N.;

Keywords: BCT; IoT; AI; wine; supply chain
Zhizhilashvili, N.; Tricase, C. The
Integration of the Internet of Things,
Artificial Intelligence, and Blockchain
Technology for Advancing the Wine
Supply Chain. Computers 2024, 13, 72.
1. Introduction
[Link] Wine profoundly impacts society and economies, playing a critical role in human life
computers13030072 beyond just being a drink [1]. The history of winemaking dates back over 8000 years, with
archaeological evidence pointing to the South Caucasus region, specifically Georgia, as
Academic Editor: Md Arafatur
the cradle for grapevine [2]. Numerous artifacts and residues found in the region have
Arafatur Rahman
confirmed the presence of wine production and consumption in ancient times [3,4]. This
Received: 8 January 2024 longevity of winemaking as a profession highlights the enduring impact of wine on human
Revised: 28 February 2024 culture and underscores its continued relevance today [5].
Accepted: 4 March 2024 Besides its cultural significance, wine has remarkable economic importance because it
Published: 8 March 2024 is a key driver of economic growth in many regions, generating wealth and workplaces
and attracting tourists interested in wineries and local culture [6]. Additionally, quality
wine has been shown to have numerous health benefits when consumed in moderation.
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
These benefits include reducing the risk of heart disease, improving cognitive function, and
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
promoting longevity [7].
This article is an open access article Consequently, wine has a significant impact on both society and economies, playing a
distributed under the terms and crucial role in many aspects of human life. Whether it is as a cultural icon, an economic
conditions of the Creative Commons driver, or a healthful drink, wine continues to play an important role in the future of society
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// and the global economy [8].
[Link]/licenses/by/ The production of wine, a product with a rich cultural heritage that spans thousands
4.0/). of years, has been subject to numerous technological innovations in recent times [9–11].

Computers 2024, 13, 72. [Link] [Link]

Computers 2024, 13, 72 2 of 25

Precisely, advances in technologies have opened up new opportunities for optimizing

the wine supply chain, from the vineyard to the consumer [12]. The Internet of Things
(IoT), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and Blockchain Technology (BCT) are transforming the
way that wine is produced, managed, and distributed, offering numerous benefits to all
stakeholders in the wine industry [13,14]. This presents a unique opportunity to enhance
the traditional methods of wine production with novel approaches, resulting in a more
efficient and sustainable production process.
The implementation of IoT, AI, and BCT in the wine industry has the potential to
revolutionize the entire supply chain, from the vineyard to the consumer. These technolo-
gies enable precise monitoring and control of the wine production process, from grape
harvesting to wine aging, resulting in a more consistent and high-quality end product.
Furthermore, the use of BCT provides a secure and transparent supply chain, ensuring
that the authenticity and provenance of the wine can be traced from the vineyard to the
consumer [15].
Indeed, food producers have expressed an interest in incorporating BCT with some
aspects of information and communication technologies (ICTs), such as IoT devices, AI and
others, to confront the complex challenge of food safety, traceability, quality, and control of
internal processes in the agri-food production [16].
Additionally, the role of the integration of novel technologies in the agri-food supply
chains is essential for achieving a sustainable industry where data availability and manage-
ment are crucially important because they are a precondition for demonstrating product
quality and characteristics to the stakeholders while ensuring safe food, tracking, and all of
the product-related and institutional sustainability values [17–19].
Despite the prospective role of IoT-AI-BCT in the wine supply chain being evident, to
the best of our knowledge, there is a lack of research focusing on safety, environmental and
economic aspects of the wine industry, making a comprehensive review of the contribution
of IoT-AI-BCT implementation to the sustainability of the wine supply chain. In order to
make a constructive addition to the current body of knowledge, this study conducts a com-
prehensive literature review and develops a solid IoT-AI-BCT framework for sustainability
in the wine supply chain.

2. Background Research
2.1. Wine Supply Chain
The wine supply chain encompasses a complex network of interconnected processes
spanning from vineyard to consumers. It begins with grape cultivation and harvesting,
followed by the winemaking process, including fermentation, aging, and bottling. After
production, wines are distributed through various channels, such as wholesalers, retailers,
and direct-to-consumer sales [20,21]. Throughout this journey, multiple stakeholders
are involved, including grape growers, wineries, distributors, retailers, and consumers
(Figure 1) [22]. Each stage of the supply chain presents unique challenges, including vineyard
management, quality control, transportation logistics, and market dynamics [23,24].
Computers 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 27
Computers 2024, 13, 72 3 of 25

Figure 1. Wine
Figure 1. Wine Supply
Supply Chain.
Chain. Source:
Source: [23,24].
[23,24].

Despite its rich tradition and cultural significance, the wine supply chain faces several
Despite its rich tradition and cultural significance, the wine supply chain faces sev-
challenges that can hinder its efficiency and sustainability [25]. Sustainability criteria
eral challenges that can hinder its efficiency and sustainability [25]. Sustainability criteria
for the wine industry emphasize the reduction of negative environmental consequences,
for the wine industry emphasize the reduction of negative environmental consequences,
such as water shortages, energy use and production waste, organic and inorganic waste,
such as water shortages, energy use and production waste, organic and inorganic waste,
greenhouse gas emissions, land issues, and the usage of pesticides have all been related
greenhouse gas emissions, land issues, and the usage of pesticides have all been related
to detrimental environmental consequences [26,27]. Sustainability criteria also take into
to detrimental environmental consequences [26,27]. Sustainability criteria also take into
account the production of social value and a company’s capacity to contribute to the
account the production
development of an areaof insocial
whichvalue and aConsequently,
it works. company’s capacity to contribute
they evaluate to the de-
the enterprises’
velopment
efforts of an area
to conserve the in which it works.
surrounding Consequently,
ecosystems they evaluate
and the cultural the enterprises’
and viticultural heritageef-of
forts to conserve
the area [28]. the surrounding ecosystems and the cultural and viticultural heritage of
the area [28].
One of the challenges is the lack of transparency and traceability, which makes it diffi-
One
cult to ofthe
track theorigin
challenges is the
of grapes, lack of
monitor thetransparency and traceability,
production process, and verifywhich makes it
the authenticity
difficult to track the origin of grapes, monitor the production process,
of the final product [29]. This opacity can lead to issues such as fraud, counterfeiting, and verify theandau-
thenticity of undermining
mislabeling, the final product [29]. This
consumer trustopacity can lead in
and confidence tothe
issues such as
industry fraud,
[30]. counter-
Additionally,
feiting, and mislabeling, undermining consumer trust and confidence
the wine supply chain often suffers from inefficiencies related to inventory management, in the industry [30].
Additionally, the wine supply chain often suffers from inefficiencies related
transportation logistics, and demand forecasting, resulting in higher costs and longer lead to inventory
management,
times [31,32]. transportation logistics, and demand
According to Kunnapapdeelert forecasting, resulting
and Pitchayadejanant [33],insupply
higherchain
costs
and longer lead times [31,32]. According to Kunnapapdeelert and
strategies addressed properly can improve collaboration between actors along this supplyPitchayadejanant [33],
supplyand,
chain chain strategies addressed
consequently, properly can
improve operational improve collaboration
performance. Authors arguebetween actors
that suppliers’
along
and this supplyintegration,
consumers’ chain and, consequently,
as well as internalimprove operational
integration, haveperformance. Authors
a positive impact ar-
on the
gue that suppliers’
operational performanceand consumers’
of the supply integration, as well as
chain. Similarly, internal integration,
Kadlubek havesupply
[34] asserts that a pos-
itive impact
chain strategy onisthe operational
essential for itsperformance of the supplyand
optimized management, chain. Similarly,
in the Kadlubek
circumstances [34]
of glob-
asserts that supply chain strategy is essential for its optimized
alization, regionalization, constant technological development and changing needs andmanagement, and in the
Computers 2024, 13, 72 4 of 25

expectations of customers, there is a need for further evolution. Chopra and Meindl [35]
and Canavari and collagues [36] also highlight the role of information technology utilization
in advancing and monitoring the performance of modern supply chains.
Indeed, in the era of digitalization, there is an opportunity to address the identified
challenges and improve the wine supply chain through the adoption of innovative technolo-
gies such as BCT, AI, and IoT. These technologies can enhance transparency, traceability,
and efficiency by digitizing supply chain processes, enabling real-time monitoring and data
sharing among stakeholders [37,38]. By leveraging digitalization, the wine industry can
overcome traditional barriers, optimize operations, and deliver greater value to consumers
while ensuring the sustainability and integrity of the supply chain [39].

2.2. IoT, AI, and BCT in the Wine Industry

2.2.1. IoT in the Wine Supply Chain
IoT is a network of interconnected items that communicate and share data with each
other [40]. The IoT is quickly integrating with a vast array of technologies, including Cloud
Technology, Machine Learning (ML), Data Analysis, and Modeling. Rapid growth in IoT
has a favorable impact on the IT sector as a whole, fostering its expansion. IoT facilitates
the development of fresh commercial strategies; one of its fundamental characteristics is
the enhancement of data, which will impact the growth of the ICT sector [41].
If the wine business used modern technologies that enable traceability, customers
would be able to check and verify each stage of the process, from the cultivation of vines
to the disposal of wine bottles and packaging [15]. Barcodes, Quick Response (QR) codes,
and Radio-Frequency IDentification (RFID) tags are a few of the supply chain monitoring
technologies that have arisen with the growth of IoT technology [42]. Barcodes use a
series of parallel gaps and bars to represent 10 digits. This information may be read by an
optical device and sent to a system for storage and processing. QR codes are extensively
used in traceable labels because of their capacity to hold more information than typical
one-dimensional barcodes [43]. RFID is comparable to barcoding in that a device reads
information from a tag or label and stores it in a database, but it has significant benefits over
barcode asset monitoring software [44]. Information contained in RFID tags may be read
from a distance, unlike barcodes, which need physical alignment with a scanner. Moreover,
its storage capacity (about 32–128 Bit) is greater than that of previous systems, and it can be
continuously updated to provide the highest level of security [45].
Specifically, Li and colleagues [46] describe an IoT platform that enables product
tracing and monitoring, which provides crucially useful services for the surveillance of
the prepackaged food supply chain and, therefore, the adoption of suitable and informed
decisions. In a similar spirit, Pal and Kant [47], in their work, provide the technical
requirements for integrating a sensing and communication platform based on the IoT into
a food distribution network, including a consideration of the data that must be obtained
and the most efficient means for gathering it. Jabbari and Kaminsky [48] review the design
of BC systems and their impact on the food supply chain. Several benefits are highlighted,
including the preservation of trust between the user and the system, the removal of the
need for a third party to maintain trust, and the ability to trace the origin of individual
components. The most challenging and outstanding concern is the ease with which RFID
tags and sensors may be replicated and manipulated.
According to Montecchi and colleagues [49], a BCT-based food distribution system
might be used to identify the provenance of each sold item. This may help level the
playing field between businesses and customers by giving consumers access to the same
product information as enterprises. Compared to Luvisi and colleagues [50] and Kamilaris
and colleagues [51], investigate the impact of the BCT-based food supply chain on the
agriculture market. Despite the extensive regulation of wine supply chain activities, wine
fraud is prevalent (by both European and national legislation). It has been observed that
there is a lack of technological solutions in the research literature that attempt to promote
supply chain transparency and efficiency in the wine business. Enterprises that have
Computers 2024, 13, 72 5 of 25

traditionally played significant roles at different points along the wine distribution are less
likely to use electronic traceability systems [52], while larger companies are more likely to
do so. It is essential that technological advances be made in the field of traceability, with
the aim of proving the origins and authenticity of wines to protect wine consumers and
producers [53].

2.2.2. AI in the Wine Supply Chain

AI tools, such as ML algorithms, are increasingly integrated into the various stages of
the wine supply chain described in Section 2.1 [54].
In the grape preproduction stage, farmers utilize ML algorithms to predict crop yield,
assess soil conditions, and optimize irrigation strategies [55]. This predictive capability
aids in disease identification and weather anticipation, which is crucial for enhancing
agricultural productivity [56].
During the wine production stage, ML algorithms facilitate production planning in order
to ensure a high-quality wine output. Predictive algorithms help optimize fermentation
processes, monitor grape ripeness, and manage fermentation temperatures to maintain
wine quality and consistency [57,58].
At the packaging stage, AI algorithms and the presence of robots assist in optimizing
packaging processes for efficiency and sustainability. Predictive maintenance models help
minimize downtime by identifying potential equipment failures before they occur, ensuring
uninterrupted packaging operations [59].
In the distribution stage, retailers and distributors leverage AI for tasks such as inven-
tory management, shipping optimization, and customer profiling. Predictive analytics
algorithms forecast demand patterns, enabling retailers to stock the right products in the
right quantities at the right locations, reducing inventory costs and minimizing stock-
outs [60]. In addition, including AI tools, such as decision support systems in the business
processes, considerably reduces the risk of inefficient output, especially in terms of sustain-
able practices [61].
Throughout the supply chain (sale and consumption stage), AI-powered recommenda-
tion systems enhance customer experiences by providing personalized product recom-
mendations based on individual preferences and purchase histories. Natural language
processing (NLP) algorithms analyze customer feedback and sentiment to identify emerging
trends and preferences, enabling wineries to adapt their product offerings and marketing
strategies accordingly [62].
By integrating AI technology across these stages, the wine industry can optimize
processes, improve product quality, and enhance customer satisfaction while promoting
sustainability and efficiency throughout the supply chain [54].

2.2.3. BCT in the Wine Supply Chain

Sustainability issues are pressuring and encouraging the agriculture sector within the
worldwide economic system to evolve towards greater sustainability [63]. Consequently,
the past decade has seen rapid growth in the promotion of intelligent systems and the
discovery of novel solutions across all sectors [64,65].
BCT is considered to be a game-changer in several economic areas. BCT is a distributed,
decentralized system comprised of blocks that are linked by cryptographic hashes and
timestamps. As a preventive approach to safeguard data integrity across the supply chain,
it has been widely used [66]. Consequently, no party in the supply chain may alter the
existing information as a result of BCT’s assistance in creating trust mechanisms to address
transparency and security issues [67]. In the field of agricultural research, BCT offers great
potential. Low-quality supplies result in low-quality plants, and it may have a detrimental
influence on farmers’ revenue and costs [68]. BCT’s ability of transparency enables both
small and large farms to make informed decisions and access high-quality commodities [69].
Through BCT, users can verify whether seed suppliers have delivered inferior seeds.
Computers 2024, 13, 72 6 of 25

Additionally, BCT is applied in the agricultural industry to optimize supply chain

operations, enhance traceability, increase food safety, and reduce transaction times, costs,
food fraud, and inefficient processes. In addition to increasing farmers’ earnings, BCT has
the ability to further the cause of ethical businesses by exposing their support to issues
such as fair trade, animal welfare, and pollution avoidance [70,71]. Applying the BCT
enhances the ability to track and monitor the meal throughout all of its stages [72]. It
may lessen the need for excessive pesticide and fertilizer use, which may lead to harmful
residue build-up in humans [73]. The adoption of BCT specifically promotes sustainable
agriculture [74,75]. Given that consumers put a high value on understanding the origin of
their agri-foods and that this technology may be used to fight product counterfeiting and
forging, BCT has the potential to play a significant role and find broad use [39]. Indeed,
BCT permits the detection and containment of hazardous goods, as well as the monitoring
of their journey through the supply chain by suppliers, farmers, manufacturers, merchants,
and government agencies.
Particularly, the aforementioned characteristics of BCT enable a far quicker recall in the
event that a potentially hazardous product shows up in retailers. Consequently, it mitigates
supply chain inefficiencies that may otherwise result in disastrous consequences [76,77].
Accurately detecting dangerous goods in a timely way promotes product recalls before
they spread to consumers and only to those who are affected, thus lowering health risks,
financial losses, and reputational damage [78,79].

2.2.4. IoT, AI, and BCT Integration in the Wine Supply Chain
Among the numerous potential advantages of merging IoT, AI, and BCT are an increase
in system efficiency, information transparency, environmentally intelligent farming, and
logistics. In conjunction with IoT sensors and AI, BCT may give a more comprehensive
and relevant image of the agriculture economy [80]. Precisely, utilizing IoT, the product or
service will have full connection to all required materials and components throughout the
whole manufacturing process because these sensors transmit their data to the BCT.
Connecting devices and sensors is another advantage of the IoT, and using IoT in
conjunction with BCT has been demonstrated to be an effective strategy that saves both time
and money while creating vast quantities of data. Manufacturers may utilize cutting-edge
deep learning (ADL) algorithms to examine this data in order to make wiser decisions [81].
Sadly, only a small percentage of food and beverage sector firms are now using the IoT
and smart manufacturing processes. BCT-enabled IoT systems may be enhanced using
methods of deep reinforcement learning [82].
Combining IoT with BCT ensures supply chain transparency and traceability. Precisely,
by linking IoT devices to smart contracts based on BCT, the supply chain can keep track
of where products are, how many are in stock, and who owns what at all times. With this
knowledge, companies may be better prepared for any kind of disaster. In addition, the
usage of smart contracts allows companies and customers to verify the legitimacy of food
products by tracing their origins [83].
In 2018, AgriBlockIoT solution has been presented, which used IoT and BCT through
Ethereum and Hyperledger Sawtooth to create a food traceability system. The agri-food
tracking system [84] might benefit from AgriBlockIoT’s fault tolerance, immutability, au-
ditability, and openness of data.

2.2.5. Some Practical Applications

In recent years, the wine industry has witnessed a surge in the adoption of AI, IoT,
and BCT to optimize various aspects of the supply chain.
IBM is recognized as a leading provider of enterprise BCT [85]. The IBM Blockchain
platform, open and cloud-based, offers end-to-end capabilities that enable businesses
to rapidly activate, develop, manage, and successfully secure their enterprise networks.
On IBM Blockchain Transparent Supply, VinAssure™ is developed, and it runs on IBM
Cloud to leverage advanced technologies such as blockchain, AI, and cloud to optimize
Computers 2024, 13, 72 7 of 25

the entire supply chain with benefits for all stakeholders involved. VinAssure™ connects
wine producers, sellers, importers, transporters, distributors, restaurants, and retailers,
contributing to increased traceability, efficiency, and profitability, facilitated by the ability
to efficiently and securely share data [86]. The first brand to join VinAssure™ is De Maison
Selections, a US importer of responsibly sourced wines, cider, and spirits from independent
Spanish and French producers. VinAssure™ has also been adopted by other leading wine
brands, such as Ste. Michelle Wine Estates, Export Division, the third-largest premium
wine company in the United States by size, and Maison Sichel, a Bordeaux winemaker and
merchant for seven generations. These three companies collectively produce millions of
wine bottles distributed worldwide. The companies highlighted the benefit of adopting
technology related to transparency, storytelling, and communication with consumers [87].
EY (Ernst & Young) collaborated with various wine producers to develop blockchain
solutions aimed at improving supply chain transparency and combating wine fraud. Their
blockchain platform allows consumers to trace the journey of wine from vineyard to bottle,
ensuring authenticity and quality assurance. Antient Italian Winery Placido Volpone
developed a solution in 2017 in collaboration with EY Italy for tracing the wine supply
chain, enabling the self-certification of the entire production process. The system offers
a virtual KM-zero, establishing a digital connection between the producer and the end
consumer. Through a smart label on the wine bottle, consumers can access information
about the entire production and transformation process of the wine. Blockchain ensures
the immutability of the data. This solution helped to winery in strengthening consumers’
trust and brand loyalty [30].
Wineries Rucci Curbastro, Ruffino, and Torrevento utilize the My Story platform by
DNV GL to trace their wine bottles from the vineyard to the certification entity. Among
the active producers are Ricci Curbastro from Franciacorta, Ruffino from Tuscany, and
Torrevento from Puglia. The technology involves scanning a QR code on the label, allowing
consumers to access the wine’s history and specific information verified by DNV GL
regarding its characteristics and production processes. Wineries declare increased brand
visibility after this intervention [88].
On the other hand, Robert Mondavi, one of the largest brands in the luxury alcohol
industry joining the BCT, plans to sell its unique, limited-edition bottles of wine through
cryptocurrencies with an estimated price of USD 3,500 [89]. Meanwhile, Chateau Angélus
sold one barrel, thus 300 bottles of wine with BC-certified ownership for USD 110,000
with ‘stablecoin’ cryptocurrency [90]. One of Napa Valley’s pioneering wineries, Trefethen
Family Vineyards, created traceable wine (cabernet sauvignon Trefethen) through BCT
with an added artist label dedicated to wine collationers. The winery sold nine items in one
week for around USD 700 per each, which is 10 times more expensive than the regularly
issued same wine [91].

3. Methodology
A systematic literature review (SLR) was selected to investigate and evaluate the
available literature on the use of IoT, AI, and BCT in the winery supply chain for the
purpose of optimizing operations. The proposed methodology uses a scientific, transparent,
and demonstrable protocol to search and critically analyze the current publications [92,93]
and reduces bias in the identification, selection, evaluation, and synthesis of the existing
research body when compared with traditional narrative reviews [94–96]. In addition,
Christofi and colleagues [97], as well as Rana and co-authors [98], stressed the significance
of SLR, indicating that it is a useful method for summarizing the key findings of vast and
complex research subjects, bridging present gaps, and identifying unexplored areas for
future research [99–101].
Masi and colleagues [102] and Moher and co-authors [103] employed a five-step
method to investigate the available literature extensively. This method was used to study
the literature (Figure 2).
 of SLR, indicating that it is a useful method for summarizing the key findings of vast and
complex research subjects, bridging present gaps, and identifying unexplored areas for
future research [99–101].
Masi and colleagues [102] and Moher and co-authors [103] employed a five-step
Computers 2024, 13, 72 8 of 25
method to investigate the available literature extensively. This method was used to study
the literature (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Figure 2. Graphical

Graphical representation
representation of literature
of literature investigation
investigation methodology.
methodology. Source:Source: Own elaboration
Own elabora-
tion basedbased
on theonworks
the works of Masi
of Masi et al. et al. [102]
[102] and Moher
and Moher et al. et al. [103].
[103].

Establishing a research question that will serve as the foundation for the organizing of
search words is the first step in topic development [104]. In this respect, the topic of the
study was identified by an early and exploratory literature review [94], and the research
question was then established and clarified [105]. The chosen words were included in
the construction of the query string. Particularly, the literature revealed that terms such
as “IoT”, “AI(ML)”, “BCT”, and “Wine” were associated with IoT-BCT in agriculture
(wine case study), whereas “safety” and “sustainability” were frequently used in studies
examining the use of IoT-BCT in the wine industry and agriculture in general. This resulted
in the formulation of the following research questions: How can IoT, AI, and BCT be used
to guarantee the safety of the winemaking process? How might IoT, AI, and BCT be used
Computers 2024, 13, 72 9 of 25

to achieve environmental sustainability in the wine supply chain? How may BCT help the
wine industry become commercially viable?
In the second step, identification of the material, we limited our search for relevant
works in this research topic to the database with the highest coverage of the examined
subjects, Google Scholar. This database was chosen because it allows simple access to many
high-quality studies published in reputable journals [94,106]. This is also a typical method
for various sorts of systematic reviews [107].
The following criteria were established to reduce the search for suitable publications:
1. All selected papers were written in English;
2. The filter ‘TITLE-ABS-KEY’ (scanning in titles, abstracts, and keywords) was applied
in the Google Scholar database;
3. The search was not restricted to a specific timeframe (even though it was expected to
uncover papers from 2008, the year BCT was created);
4. The sources of data chosen were only academic journal papers [94];
5. Using Boolean operators, we then selected a list of keywords to include in the search
query (specifically, AND to reduce the number of papers retrieved and OR to increase it).
We analyzed the search string along three key dimensions to get the most comprehen-
sive relevant results [106,108], focusing on specific aspects of the search problem. With an
initial application of a broad term such as “IoT-BCT” in the wine industry, we uncovered a
substantial amount of generic academic papers in the selected database (a total of 2730 pieces).
This was the search term: ((IoT-BCT) AND (wine OR AI(ML)) OR Sustainability.
In total, 482 Google Scholar papers were obtained and analyzed based on predefined
inclusion and exclusion criteria. Reading the titles and abstracts of the scientific papers rel-
evant to the topic of the review was the third step in the screening process [96]. Specifically,
Google Scholar results were examined for duplication elimination.
Subsequently, only papers with substantial contributions to the problem at hand were
examined. A second-round screening was conducted on empirical work in which the
‘Research focus’ was not indicated in the title or abstract to avoid discarding essential
publications in the field [92]. Therefore, 120 research articles were selected in total.
The fourth step, “Analysis and synthesis”, was the examination of the full-text articles
for eligibility. In addition, a full-text analysis was conducted to further assess the relevance
of these articles to the study’s objectives. Specifically, several publications were discarded
because of the following:
a. They did not integrate IoT into BCT;
b. They did not include AI(ML) in IoT-BCT models;
c. The issues of safety, economic, and environmental sustainability were not discussed in
the IoT-BCT architecture;
d. None of them are associated with the wine industry.
In this study, 29 studies have been included for this purpose. In addition, snowball
searching strategies were used by reviewing the reference lists of the selected articles to
locate more relevant articles and to validate that a substantial percentage of the primary
literature had been captured by the selection procedure [109]. A total of 5 more papers were
discovered as a result of these extra studies, increasing the total number of works to be ex-
amined to 34. Each article’s descriptive and thematic contents were appraised [99,110,111].
It was essential to establish structural dimensions and the corresponding analytical groups
in order to classify, encode, and then retrieve the final data using a spreadsheet [111].

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. The Increase of Wine Safety under IoT, AI, and BCT
Traceability throughout the supply chain is essential for ensuring the products’
safety [112]. However, the wine supply chain includes several stakeholders, some of
whom are geographically distant from one another (such as the growers, processors, and
retailers that stock the final goods). Due to the incompatibility of software and data struc-
Computers 2024, 13, 72 10 of 25

tures, it is impossible to develop a unified monitoring system for information. As a result,

every company involved in the wine supply chain has its own data recording system. Lin
and colleagues [112] envisioned an ecosystem based on BCT and IoT for smart agriculture.
According to the authors, everyone participating in the system may use their smartphones
to submit information, and the system will automatically collect data from IoT devices
without human intervention.
The information saved through the BC network cannot be changed without the ap-
proval of all involved parties [113]. A reliable system is created using this strategy that
protects its users from scammers and prevents fraud before it occurs. In a dependable
system, high availability (to authorized users) and service integrity must be assured [114].
Price increases, for instance, are difficult to execute without first having a discussion about
pricing and locating a skilled team of software engineers that charge reasonable rates and
have a diverse portfolio that includes agriculture-related experience. For example, the com-
pany must be able to provide a high-quality product that fulfills all market requirements,
including a comprehensive set of data records [115].
ICT provides a number of potential benefits for food safety, such as concurrent moni-
toring of agri-food products throughout distribution and storage [116], RFID tagging, GPS,
and QR code-like electronic labeling that is easy to synchronize with the cloud, and better
traceability due to BCT [73,117]. Incorporating AI-based Big Data Analysis (BDA) as a rapid
reaction towards food safety outbreaks enables BCT and the IoT to interact synergistically
for the improving of the food surveillance framework [118,119]. It is anticipated that the
IoT will aid in the development of comprehensive research methods in food handling, in
which key drivers such as environmental issues, human behavior, and the economic system
can be integrated to foresee food safety hazards, and BCT will improve the security and
privacy of data [67,82–84].
By making the whole food production process more open and available to consumers,
BCT enables direct consumer-to-producer connection [119,120]. It increases consumer con-
fidence and trust in food safety by lowering obstacles to commodity movement [30]. From
the perspective of regulatory agencies, BCT enables the efficient and effective application
of legislation based on accurate and trustworthy data [121]. Moreover, BCT’s compatibility
with regulations, such as geographical indications (GI) and protected designation of origin
(PDO), further enhances its value in the wine industry [122]. By facilitating compliance
with regulatory requirements and standards, BCT not only safeguards wine safety but
also strengthens the integrity of the supply chain, fostering consumer trust and brand
reputation [123].
In Table 1, several findings are synthesized from the analyzed literature regarding the
integration of IoT, AI, and BCT, and their impact on safety within the wine supply chain.

Table 1. Safety guaranteed in the wine supply chain under IoT, AI, and BTC.

Concept To describe the safety achieved by means of applied technologies in the wine supply chain.
Tech. Intervention
1. The BCT is used to trace the origin and history of wine bottles. This enables complete transparency and
accountability throughout the whole winemaking and distribution process. Using this approach, concerns with
product or food safety, such as contamination or recalls, are also identified [38,39,49,67,71,73,74,84,117,124].
2. BCT is used to generate digital wine authenticity certificates that are used to verify the provenance and
legitimacy of a bottle of wine. In addition to reducing the likelihood of falsification and fraud, this offers
BCT purchasers more certainty about the quality and authenticity of the wines they purchase [15,30,49,121,122].
3. In terms of logistics and supply chain management, BCT is used to maintain an electronic record of wine
bottles and other goods as they are carried from A to B. The wine’s quality may be affected if, for instance, the
temperature varies during delivery, although this is detectable [125].
4. Blockchain is used to record and keep immutable information on the ingredients and storage
temperatures of wine, all of which may impact the safety of the final product [121].
Computers 2024, 13, 72 11 of 25

Table 1. Cont.

Concept To describe the safety achieved by means of applied technologies in the wine supply chain.
Tech. Intervention
5. The use of BCT increases consumer trust and confidence in wine safety due to direct interaction between
producers and consumers [30,49,119,123].
BCT
6. BCT makes reliable and accurate information available to regulatory agencies and helps them carry out
informed and efficient regulations [121,122].
1. IoT-enabled sensors monitor the wine’s temperature throughout its entire lifespan. This helps to preserve
the wine’s quality and safety throughout storage and transport [46,49].
2. IoT-enabled sensors are used to monitor wine quality during the manufacturing and storage processes,
allowing winemakers to make adjustments in real-time that improve product integrity [46,47,49].
3. IoT-enabled devices are used to track inventory in wineries and warehouses, simplifying the safe storage
IoT and shipment of wine bottles [112].
4. Information on food safety, such as ingredients and storage temperatures, is kept and transmitted using
IoT-enabled devices [38,44,117].
5. The data recorded by IoT-enabled devices is used to design valuable and high-quality products [38,44,117].
6. Data records by IoT-enabled devices are useful in disease and outbreak deterrence and risk evaluation,
which empowers food safety conclusions and supports decision-making [47].
1. The quality of the wine is monitored and managed at every step of production using AI-enabled
technologies by analyzing data from IoT devices [55,126,127].
2. AI-enabled systems analyze the data from IoT sensors in vineyards to predict when equipment will need
maintenance, therefore lowering the probability of unanticipated malfunctions and accidents [56,124].
3. AI-enabled systems analyze the data to ensure that the whole production and logistics chain adheres to all
relevant safety and regulations [57,126,127].
4. AI-enabled technology is also used to improve the quality of the final product by predicting the wine’s
AI
quality using historical data obtained during production [57,124].
5. In order to ensure the safety of the final product, AI-enabled systems analyze the data on materials and
storage temperatures [59,126,127].
6. Based on the forecasts from the ML, the macro-control for the production, processing and handling of
wine products can be effectively performed [124].
7. AI reduces the time spent on manual labor, freeing employees to make more valuable contributions to a
business [59].

4.2. The Impact of IoT, AI, and BCT on the Environmental Sustainability of the Wine Supply Chain
Established in 1987, the United Brundtland Commission defined sustainability as
“meeting the needs of the present without compromising the capacity of future generations
to meet their own needs”. According to the International Organization for Vine and
Wine [128], sustainable viticulture is an “international policy on the level of the wine
processing and production processes, integrating at the same time the financial viability of
frameworks and regions, generating quality goods, considering prerequisites of precision in
sustainable vineyards, risks to the environment, product safety, and consumer health, and
appreciating of heritage, historical, social, cultural, and environmental facets”. According
to Gilinski and colleagues [129], leaving the land in better condition than the present one
for future generations is a top priority for individuals in the wine industry. Access to more
information about wine production through the IoT-BCT enables health-conscious and
ecologically conscientious customers to put a greater value on their wine purchases [39].
With a thorough understanding of how to integrate sustainability into a company’s
operations while minimizing the costs associated with adopting sustainability certification
requirements, such as data collection and management techniques, the majority of obstacles
related to sustainability compliance can be overcome. In this regard, BCT offers potential
as a way of enhancing ecosystem development in relation to concerns of transparency, food
safety, and provenance in agri-food chains [130]. In addition, BCT has shown potential for
enhanced management of global supply chains in terms of transparency, traceability, and
security, all of which are reflected in a rise in efficiency [125,131].
BCT can simplify supply chain - wide data collecting, storage, and certification [132].
In pursuit of increased environmental responsibility, the efficient management of data
Computers 2024, 13, 72 12 of 25

is a significant topic. Every day, a vast amount of information is generated in the food
industry, and recognizing methods to extract vital information from diverse sources will
aid in bacterial risk assessment [120], outbreak prevention, and identification of trends
through pathogen monitoring [73], which strengthens food safety inferences and facili-
tates decisions. In fact, the lack of a defined approach for data collection throughout the
whole manufacturing process and storage is one of the greatest obstacles to ecological
sustainability in business. The assessment of a product’s carbon footprint, for instance,
requires a cradle-to-grave understanding of the product’s sourcing, processing practices,
and logistics across the supply chain, necessitating a concerted effort and, consequently, the
assertive contribution of the various actors along the supply chain [133]. BCT has shown
great potential as a solution to this issue because it is a technology that can monitor and
map the whole supply chain in a unified, secure, transparent, and time-efficient way [134].
Overall, this tracking has shown promise in terms of assuring ethical sourcing and
monitoring ecological responsibility [135], streamlining the green supply chains [136],
and ensuring social sustainability [137]. In Table 2, evidence is summarized from the
analyzed literature regarding the integration of IoT, AI, and BCT, focusing on their role in
environmental protection and management within the wine supply chain.

Table 2. Environmental sustainability guaranteed in the wine supply chain under IoT, AI, and BCT.

To describe the environmental protection and/or management within the wine supply chain by the intervention
Concept
of used technologies.
Tech. Intervention
1. BCT is used to trace the origin and history of wine bottles which enables transparency and accountability
in the wine supply chain that contributes to the implementation of environmentally friendly
methods [13,14,39,75,125,138,139].
2. By tracking wine bottles and other materials across the production and transportation, BCT-enabled
supply chain management is used to improve logistics and lower the wine industry’s carbon emission [39,125].
BCT 3. The origin and validity of a bottle of wine may be validated by the use of BCT-based digital authenticity
certificates. As a result, the wine supply chain will be sustainable and enhance responsible ecological wine
production [14,15,135,136].
4. BCT is used to record and verify organic and sustainable winemaking credentials [135,136].
5. A traceability system, with the combination of BCT and IoT, permits the conducting of hazard analysis,
which leads to environmental protection [38,136].
1. Vineyards are monitored using IoT-enabled devices to gather data on soil conditions, weather conditions,
and inputs application and uptake. Using this data, farmers regulate inputs more accurately [47,49].
2. IoT-enabled devices monitor and control grapes’ power use. It is feasible, for instance, to save energy
expenditures by monitoring and regulating wine production tank temperatures using sensors [46,47].
3. In vineyards, IoT-enabled sensors detect the humidity of the soil, allowing more accurate irrigation system
IoT
management and reduced water waste [46,47].
4. Data availability via the IoT-BCT increases transparency and enables the increase of environmental
protection/management initiatives [112,117].
5. IoT devices ensure ethical sourcing and monitoring of the environmental supply chain, reducing barriers
and complexity to the green supply chain and social sustainability [44].

1. With the use of AI-based algorithms, it is possible to predict the optimal harvest time depending on
factors such as weather and vine growth. Therefore, the vineyard may become more efficient and produce less
food waste [124].
2. AI may contribute to winery management by increasing efficiency and reducing waste throughout the
winemaking process. This can be done by monitoring temperature and acidity throughout fermentation,
AI
allowing winemakers to make immediate adjustments to the process for optimal quality control [57,127].
3. AI might help wineries become more eco-friendly by identifying which production processes and supply
networks use the least amount of energy [126].
4. AI is used to predict the quality of a wine before it is bottled, allowing winemakers to make adjustments
and reduce waste [55,124].
Computers 2024, 13, 72 13 of 25

4.3. The Benefits of BCT on the Local Economy of the Wine Industry
The agriculture industry is considering BCT due to its capacity to enable near-instantaneous
payments and automate compliance via smart contracts, as well as enhance security, trans-
parency, transaction speed, and operational expenditures [38]. Due to its de-intermediating,
transparent, and listening characteristics, BCT has the ability to cut transaction costs, im-
prove the efficiency of existing value networks, challenge revenue models, and establish
new markets [117,140].
BCT has the potential to continue enhancing financial planning, source, traceability,
and transparency in food sources, as well as facilitate the establishment of new products
and markets for agricultural production in low-income countries [51,69].
While the agri-food industry is vital to national economies, it confronts various issues
that diminish its export competitiveness, such as post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables
at the farm gate, storage facilities, retail and wholesale markets and a lack of a direct sales
channel [141]. Herewith, in the agri-food industry, there is no certainty of market fairness
due to the asymmetry of market data. Mao and colleagues [138] designed an alliance chain-
based food trade system to solve these challenges. The authors exploited consortium BCT
to design a unique architecture that aids in protecting the integrity of financial transactions.
Their BCT allows mobile banking for farmers and substantially reduces transaction fees.
The agricultural and food sectors would considerably benefit from the administration of
supply chain activities and finances in real-time. Using BCT, farmers can be assured a fair
price for their commodities, while merchants can confirm they have received what they
paid for [114].
Small business ownership is plagued with obstacles. It might take between one
and two years to locate a consistent stream of customers and create a company. Initial
Coin Offering (ICO) is a kind of financing similar to crowdsourcing that employs crypto
money instead of regular payments; it may aid small farm owners in finding investors and
expanding their business [142]. Due to initial coin offerings (ICOs), startups do not need to
spend additional money on legal expenses or hire a lawyer to make their ideas a reality; all
they need to do is persuade people to participate in the company [143].
In order to speed up the ordering, delivery, and payment of food, companies may use
smart contracts, which are network-accessible bits of code developed by software experts.
When the commodities are ready, transactions may be performed instantaneously, sparing
farmers the inconvenience of waiting months or even years for their cash to be returned. In
addition, middlemen are unnecessary. Therefore, both farmers and their clients may feel
certain that their agreements will be respected [140]. The BCT is also included on trade
platforms. Stock markets may now profit from BCT while doing business as normal. It can
be seen how easily farmers may swap future contracts at predetermined prices for crops,
livestock, fruits, vegetables, and other agricultural products using the wine supply chain as
an example. Farmers and consumers will have a solid understanding of production costs
as a result [51].
Bitcoin and other digital currencies often refer to BCT. Due to this, according to
Vishakha and colleagues [144], farmers may use PavoCoin, a cryptocurrency designed
in a similar fashion to Bitcoin but with characteristics targeted to their requirements. It
is the most secure method of online payment and is universally accepted. In addition to
increasing transparency, the money may be used to accelerate and simplify transactions
with clients [144].
In Table 3, summarized evidence from the analyzed literature pertaining to the inte-
gration of IoT, AI, and BCT, and its impact on economic performance, is presented.
Computers 2024, 13, 72 14 of 25

Table 3. Economic sustainability guaranteed in the wine supply chain under IoT, AI, and BCT.

Concept To describe the economic performance achieved by applied technologies in the wine supply chain.
Tech. Intervention
1. BCT decreases transaction fees, and actors receive fair payments for their products. Wine supply chain
actors, mainly farmers, can make mobile payments and credits.
2. Financing is enhanced in the wine supply chain due to transparency and trust brought by using BCT.
Small farm owners are able to find investors and improve their business via BCT.
3. Transparency and traceability systems help wine suppliers achieve a better reputation, which, in return,
generates income through increased customers [30,79].
4. Transactions/payments are performed immediately once the products are available. No delay or waste of
time by waiting for the payments to be returned.
5. BCT is represented on exchanges and stock markets. Actors are able to benefit from access to stock
markets and exchange services.
6. Chain actors are easily trading upcoming contracts at fixed prices for wine. As a result, they will know
BCT
their cost, and customers will not be surprised by price changes.
7. The ability to track the origin and history of wine bottles allows for total accountability and transparency
throughout the whole winemaking and distribution process. There is a correlation between this and an increase
in sales and income since consumers’ trust and loyalty to the brand will improve.
8. Using BCT to construct smart contracts that automate monetary transactions and payments between
parties may simplify and enhance the wine supply chain’s financing. This ultimately results in improved profits
and lower expenses for all concerned parties.
9. BCT enables direct-to-consumer sales via the development of digital marketplaces where buyers and
sellers interact without the need for middlemen, therefore saving money.
10. Using BCT to record and verify credentials for ecologically friendly and organic wine production
enhances the wine’s value and marketability.
1. The recorded data by the IoT-enabled devices are used in the planning of the supply chain and permit the
best handling of the wine, therefore increasing the price tag of the wine [112,117].
2. IoT-enabled devices help farmers incur necessary costs by having all records of the chain on file [112,117].
3. Operating IoT sensors to measure and regulate the flow of water, energy, and fertilizers is one approach to
IoT saving money in the vineyard [46,47].
4. IoT-enabled devices automate vineyard processes like wine fermentation to increase production and
reduce costs [112,117].
5. IoT-enabled devices are used to monitor vineyard and warehouse inventories, therefore enhancing
efficiency and reducing needless stockouts and surpluses [46].
1. AI maintains available products for retailers in a cost-effective way while the stock of retailers can well
satisfy the demands of consumers [62,124].
2. To increase production and profitability, AI is used to analyze data from IoT devices in the wine supply
chain in order to anticipate future yields and identify the most efficient use of existing resources [55,124].
3. Quality control is performed by an AI-enabled system that analyzes Iot devices’ data in real-time to detect
and anticipate quality issues like spoilage or contamination. In addition to raising sales and profitability, this
AI helps ensure that buyers obtain only safe and high-quality wine [56,124].
4. AI-enabled devices are used to anticipate when vineyard machinery and equipment may need service,
therefore preventing expensive failures [124].
5. AI is used to analyze customer data and predict consumer demand, hence enhancing marketing and sales
strategies and boosting profitability [60,62,124].
6. The automation of routine operations and enhanced decision-making are two ways in which AI increases
winery output and reduces expenses [56,60,83].

4.4. Challenges in Integration of IoT, AI, and BCT in the Wine Industry
Integrating IoT, AI, and BCT in the wine supply chain presents numerous opportu-
nities, but it is not without its challenges [67,72]. While both BCT and AI offer significant
benefits, their implementation requires specialized knowledge and expertise, making them
less accessible to smaller and medium-sized enterprises. The lack of educational materials
and awareness about BCT further complicates its adoption, particularly among stake-
holders who may not fully understand its potential. Moreover, skepticism surrounding
cryptocurrencies, often associated with BCT, has led to regulatory hurdles and outright
prohibitions in certain jurisdictions, hindering its widespread use in the food industry [143].
Computers 2024, 13, 72 15 of 25

Legal and regulatory frameworks also pose challenges to the installation and operation
of BCT and AI systems in the wine supply chain [84]. Government intervention is necessary
to establish guidelines and standards for the use of these technologies, ensuring compliance
with industry regulations and data protection laws [73,116]. Additionally, issues related
to data sharing and privacy must be addressed to foster trust and cooperation among
stakeholders in the supply chain. Farm owners may be hesitant to share sensitive informa-
tion on a public network, highlighting the need for secure and transparent data-sharing
protocols [84].
Overcoming these challenges requires collaborative efforts from industry stakehold-
ers, government bodies, and technology developers [145]. Educational initiatives can
help bridge the knowledge gap and promote understanding of BCT and AI among wine
producers and distributors. Regulatory reforms should aim to facilitate innovation while
safeguarding consumer interests and data privacy. By addressing these challenges, the wine
industry can harness the full potential of BCT and AI to enhance transparency, efficiency,
and sustainability across the supply chain.

4.5. Proposed Framework

The analysis of massive volumes of data may be used in the whole supply chain to
enhance decision-making at each level. Due to the widespread use of networked devices
such as trucks, RFID, smartphones, cameras, and sensor networks, large amounts of data
are produced. BDA and ML techniques may assist firms in acquiring the proper approach,
skills, and tools to become data powerhouses [146]. Moreover, BDA may help in the
development of novel techniques for enhancing supply chain decision-making processes,
from frontline operations to policy decisions, such as the selection of an acceptable supply
chain operating model [126]. The ML-based decision-support system may be used both at
the edges and on the data servers to assess the collected data [124,127]. Using BDA and
cutting-edge prediction algorithms that take into account elements such as climate, special
events, and changing marketing trends, supply chain companies may be able to better
anticipate client demands.
To establish an inclusive agricultural and food supply chain, BCT must include co-
operating networks [139], social ownership of resources, democratic governance, and a
decentralized digital tech platform [125,147].
Chen and colleagues [148] designed a BCT-based architecture to ensure agro-based
safety with product tracking in ASC systems, with proof-of-work (PoW) employed to
secure global consensus and the integrity of accurate, unique, and unforgeable tracing data.
In light of these efforts, we created an IoT-AI(ML)-BCT framework to assure the safety
and sustainability of the wine supply chain from the standpoint of all stakeholders involved
(Figure 3). The proposed framework is instrumental to openness and assist chain actors in
decision-making. The transparency and accountability assured by our framework are the
key aspects that make the wine supply chain ecologically responsible and facilitate chain
actors to incur necessary costs.
The proposed IoT-AI(ML)-BCT framework integrates IoT, AI, and BCT to revolutionize
the wine industry’s logistics and quality control processes. It considers that all actors of
the supply chain are part of the system: Grape producers use ML algorithms to predict
crop yields, monitor soil conditions, and forecast weather patterns, aiding vineyard man-
agement and optimizing production; wineries use IoT devices for tracking wine barrels
throughout the supply chain, ensuring proper storage conditions and minimizing spoilage
risks. Meanwhile, BCT provides transparency and immutability to supply chain data,
enabling consumers to trace the journey of each bottle from vineyard to shelf, guaranteeing
authenticity and quality. Precisely, each actor of the supply chain uses BCT in order to
keep immutable data, thus information they declare regarding each phase of the wine
production. The data comes protected through a hash function that includes the hashes
of the previous data. Consequently, as long as the chain is, it becomes more difficult to
alter the information. In the end, final consumers are able to track back the information
Computers 2024, 13, 72 16 of 25

Computers 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 27

about the product they purchase by simply scanning the QR code given on the label of
the product.

Figure 3.
Figure 3. The
The proposed
proposed IoT-AI(ML)-BCT-based
IoT-AI(ML)-BCT-based framework
framework for
for secure
secure and
and sustainable
sustainable wine
wine supply
supply
chain. Source:
chain. Source: own
own elaboration.
elaboration.

4.5.1. The
Chain Actors IoT-AI(ML)-BCT framework integrates IoT, AI, and BCT to revolution-
proposed
ize the wine industry’s
Suppliers: logistics
the required dataand quality
contain control processes.
information It considers
on agri-food that all
inputs (such actors
as seeds,
of the supply
pesticides, andchain are part
fertilizers) as of theassystem:
well farmerGrape producers use ML algorithms to predict
transactions.
cropFarmers:
yields, monitor soil conditions,
in the case and forecast
of farmers, their weather
information patterns,
includes farmaiding vineyard
locations, man-
crop culti-
vation
agementtechniques, harvestproduction;
and optimizing timings, meteorological
wineries useconditions,
IoT devicesfinancial transactions
for tracking with
wine barrels
third parties,the
throughout [Link] chain, ensuring proper storage conditions and minimizing spoil-
Processing
age risks. and bottling:
Meanwhile, The data
BCT provides are gathered
transparency andand used throughout
immutability the processing
to supply chain data,
and bottling
enabling phases. This
consumers datathe
to trace includes
journeyinformation on the
of each bottle factories,
from fermentation
vineyard processes,
to shelf, guarantee-
bottling an packaging procedures, transactions with farmers and wholesalers,
ing authenticity and quality. Precisely, each actor of the supply chain uses BCT in order etc.
immutablethe
Distributors:
to keep information
data, from distributors
thus information they declare comprises
regardingthe each routes
phasetraveled, the
of the wine
temperatures and humidity levels maintained during storage, the identities
production. The data comes protected through a hash function that includes the hashes of of everyone
engaged in the
the previous supply
data. chain, and much
Consequently, as longmore.
as the chain is, it becomes more difficult to alter
Retailers: retailers
the information. havefinal
In the end, access to tracing
consumers are data that
able to includes
track back theinformation
information onabout
agri-
food products (such as quality, quantity, price, and expiration dates),
the product they purchase by simply scanning the QR code given on the label of the prod-as well as storage
conditions,
uct. transactions with distributors, etc.
Computers 2024, 13, 72 17 of 25

Consumers: Consumers may get extensive agri-food product information on their

mobile devices (from suppliers to retailers). Using QR codes, consumers may have access to
information on the origin, route, batch, and lot numbers of their wine, as well as information
regarding environmental monitoring.

4.5.2. IoT Devices

All chain players (producers, growers, processors (wineries), distributors, retailers,
and consumers) are examined to assemble a complete time series of wine sector activities.
The IoT devices are QR/bar codes, RFID, NFC, sensors, and mobile devices. All chain pa-
rameters are tracked by IoT devices, including production area, prices, temperature, carbon
dioxide (CO2 ), humidity, diseases, soil moisture, soil pH, fermentation, wine grade/quality,
packaging weight and date etc. Data are recorded at all stages of the wine supply chain, and
each data file is made with indexing and time stamp components. The proposed system
entails storing identical data on the BCT in two ways. IoT devices are synchronized to
upload data inputs to the ML module and BCT system at the same rate, and sensors collect
each piece of chain data at predetermined intervals. If the information on the BCT and
the IoT devices do not match, tampering or cloning of the items may be deduced at a later
stage of the trace-back procedure due to two ways recording of the data.

4.5.3. ML Module
ML/AI algorithms assist chain actors in managing their processes. This module is
accustomed to adhering to fair-trade policies. Real-world databases are prone to problems
such as incomplete and noisy data. The data must be cleansed and transformed before
being analyzed. This improvement in speed, accuracy, and efficacy is advantageous to
the analytical skills of ML algorithms. If a value for a particular field or set of records is
missing, it will be substituted with its average value.
The data collected by IoT sensors is sent to the ML module for predictive purposes
to support wine supply chain actors in decision-making and subsequently stored in the
BCT. ML module modifies standard sales forecasting, and chain data may be significantly
reduced. Any anomalies or significant changes in client behavior are recorded in the
ML module so that stakeholders may examine the data for efficient planning. All chain
stakeholders will have access to the stored information on the BCT and will use the
information for their benefit.

4.5.4. BCT Module

A BCT consists of several blocks in a single chain that contains blocks that have
been verified by the majority of users. When one member in the BC network finalizes
a PoW task, and the other users validate the outcome, the participant’s transaction is
added to the BCT in a new block. This indicates that BCT may be depended on to protect
financial transactions.
Tracing data received at each chain transaction will be uploaded to a block using
digital tools. Each block is added to the BCT when members have verified and consented
to it. Another area where BCT excels is smart contracts, automating transactions between
parties without the need for a third party [149].
Upon the adoption of PoW, any participant in the BCT will have the opportunity to
mine blocks [150]. Participants demonstrate their labor in the PoW by completing mining
tasks, which are mathematical problems that are very difficult to solve but easy to verify.
This dilemma is often characterized as the following.
Find n
s.t. SHA256(SHA256(h.n)) < target (1)
where “h” is a block’s contents, “n” is a random number, and “.” is a string concatenation
operator. Using the cryptographic hash technique SHA256(), a 256-bit binary integer is
obtained [151]. In this instance, the puzzle is regarded to be solved if this number is smaller
than the target value, which represents the mining difficulty.
Computers 2024, 13, 72 18 of 25

4.5.5. Transaction in the System

A merchant submits a proposal to a smart contract, which is subsequently sent to a
wholesaler by a peer who supports the idea. The distributor will conduct the conclusion of
the data files. After the smart contract has validated the predetermined rules, it will seek
client confirmation. The orderer will then provide the confirmation to the distributor, and
the smart contract will distribute the cash. At the completion of the transaction, all parties
involved will be informed of its success.

5. Conclusion and Implication for Theory and Practice

The population of the current world is expanding at an alarming pace. There is an
urgent need for revolutionary agricultural advancements to meet the food requirements
of so many people. An intelligent farming model and inclusive foods play a crucial
role in this business [18]. The importance of cutting-edge technologies such as BCT, IoT,
and AI is increasingly recognized. Industrial IoT and cutting-edge ML methods will
revolutionize global agriculture. By digitizing the paper-based monitoring system, fast
access to information through the wine supply chain will soon be achieved. The suggested
management system utilizes BCT, IoT, and AI. Also, the functions for managing the wine
supply chain’s tracking and all user data are included. All granularities of traceability data
management, compliance and environmental information management, and wine product
pricing are feasible. The user has total control over who has access to what, and all settings
are customizable.
Both BCT and AI have shown tremendous promise, but they need to overcome several
challenges before. Both applications need substantial expertise and training, making them
difficult for smaller and medium-sized enterprises. There are no educational materials
available to inform the general audience about the BCT. People’s lack of faith in cryp-
tocurrencies has led to their outright prohibition by a number of nations. In order for this
technology to be used in the food sector, the government must adopt certain regulations.
Similarly, the installation of this technology is subject to a number of legal restrictions.
Ensuring the right data sharing on the network by farm owners is also problematic. Gov-
ernments may be able to find answers to these issues if they intervene. Since opposition
to such openness may be a sign of bad faith, the government should take the appropriate
measures to ensure that all actors in all supply chains share all data.
The deployment of BCT throughout the wine supply chain enables the production
and supply of safe and healthy wine. This provides an environment of fair competi-
tion and a transparent marketplace where consumers can search for wine products with
total confidence.
According to Lin and colleagues [152], the next step for IoT-enabled e-agriculture
schemes is to incorporate BCT into current e-agriculture and IoT systems. Data transparency
and a secure, sustainable agricultural environment can be provided by using BCT and IoT.
A system for dependable monitoring of data stored in a BCT with a decentralized ledger
can be developed using this prototype.
By applying smart supply chain system, regulated or modified environmental storage,
handling, IoT-enabled transportation, and logistics, the architecture might improve pre-
and post-harvest management of the wine from an ecological safety standpoint. Smart
farming, which includes the IoT and AI, is vital for the most efficient use of inputs in
the wine-growing. Emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, and hydrocarbons are cate-
gorized as greenhouse gases that may be monitored using IoT-AI-BCT, contributing to
environmental sustainability.
The corporate sector can use cutting-edge technology such as BCT, AI, and IoT to
develop a trustworthy supply chain management system. Implementing a data-driven
smart agricultural supply chain using IoT, AI, and BCT is the most effective way to address
these concerns. The ideal would be if the supply chain could give a stream of data that
could be utilized to influence choices. This may aid the global challenges of food quality,
safety, foodborne infections, data interchange throughout the manufacturing process,
Computers 2024, 13, 72 19 of 25

etc. Consideration is given to potential applications of BCT, AI, and IoT in the logistics
sector [83].
The proposed framework employs the integration of AI, IoT, and BCT to make the
trade compliance process more reliable and efficient. Therefore, these architectural com-
ponents contribute to economic sustainability. To attract investors and expand their enter-
prises, farmers may now utilize crypto money as an alternative to regular payments and
the aforementioned technologies. Smart contracts provide immediate payments of financial
commitments. Users may now investigate the origin and supply chain of wine due to the
combination of BCT with IoT and AI.
Using the suggested immutable framework, participants may enhance their businesses
by getting demand predictions and trends for wine in the future with the use of ML
algorithms. In particular, the findings suggest that the proposed IoT-AI-BCT-based wine
supply chain architecture can successfully assure reliable product safety and extend the
economic model of the wine sector. IoT-enabled participants (suppliers, farmers, processors,
distributors, retailers, and consumers) provide assurance that the product was handled in
accordance with safety and healthy food standards, and each transaction on this framework
is timestamped and encrypted.
Due to shifts in client behavior and viewpoint, real-world wine supply chain needs are
changing at a quick rate. The production, processing, and administration of wine products
may all benefit from the use of ML approaches that provide accurate predictions. Thus,
manufacturers’ production can be maintained at a cost-effective level for retailers, while
retailers’ inventory can sufficiently fulfill consumer’s demand.

6. Limitations and Future Works

While this study endeavors to provide a comprehensive examination of the integration
of BCT, IoT, and AI in the wine supply chain, certain limitations merit acknowledgment.
These limitations, along with avenues for future research, are discussed below.
Weaknesses Addressed:
While the SLR approach was deemed appropriate for this academic research paper
and was justified in the methodology section, we recognize the importance of empirical
validation for the proposed framework. Practical cases have been integrated into the paper
to provide real-world context and validation to address this concern.
Additionally, the emphasis on technological solutions in the paper may have inad-
vertently overshadowed other critical aspects, such as regulatory, cultural, and economic
factors integral to the wine supply chain. Although it is challenging to comprehensively
cover all dimensions in a single paper, efforts have been made to shortly incorporate also
these aspects.
Remaining Limitations:
One notable limitation is the absence of case studies or empirical data demonstrating
the practical application and effectiveness of the proposed technologies in real-world
scenarios. While the research is based on the SLR and proposes a theoretical framework,
empirical validation through case studies is essential to ascertain its real-world applicability
and effectiveness. This limitation has been acknowledged, and future research endeavors
will focus on conducting empirical studies to validate the proposed framework.
Future Research Directions:
Future research endeavors will concentrate on several key areas to address the identi-
fied limitations and further advance the understanding and application of BCT, IoT and AI
in the wine supply chain moving forward. These include the following:
Conducting case studies or empirical studies to validate the proposed framework in
real-world settings, thereby demonstrating its practical application and effectiveness.
Exploring the regulatory landscape surrounding the adoption of BCT, IoT, and AI in
the wine industry, considering factors such as data privacy, security, and compliance with
industry standards and regulations.
Computers 2024, 13, 72 20 of 25

Investigating the cultural and economic implications of integrating these technologies

into the wine supply chain, including stakeholder perceptions, adoption barriers, and
economic feasibility.
Continuously monitoring technological advancements and emerging trends in BCT,
IoT and AI to ensure the proposed framework remains relevant and up-to-date.
Furthermore, the use of deep learning and time series algorithms in more complex
wine supply chain management scenarios with demands derived from actual data would
be exciting to examine.
Finally, while this study lays the groundwork for understanding the potential of BCT,
IoT and AI in the wine supply chain, future research endeavors will focus on addressing
the identified limitations and further exploring the multifaceted implications of integrating
these technologies into the industry.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, N.A. and C.T.; methodology, N.A.; formal analysis,
N.A.; investigation, N.A.; resources, N.A.; data curation, N.A.; writing—original draft preparation,
N.A.; writing—review and editing, N.A. and N.Z.; visualization, N.A..; supervision, C.T.; project
administration, C.T.; funding acquisition, N.A. and C.T. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported by the “RIPARTI: assegni di RIcerca per riPARTire con le
Imprese” project—CUP D74C22000040002, funded by the Apulia region, Italy. The funders played no
role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or manuscript preparation.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest. This research did not receive any
specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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