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Evolution of Operating Systems Overview

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13 views3 pages

Evolution of Operating Systems Overview

Uploaded by

j
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
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Note:(3) 1

History & Evolution of Operating Systems:

Historically operating systems have bcen tightly related to the computer architecture, it is
good idea to study the history of opcrating systems from the architecture of the computers
on which they run.

Operating systems have evolved through a numbcr of distinct phases or generations


which corresponds roughly to thedecades.

" The 1940's - First Generations

Serial Processing-(1940's 1950's): In the 1940s, the carliest electronic digital


hardware.
systems had no operating systems, programmer interacted directly with
Electronic systems of this time were so primitive compared to those of today that
mechanical
instructions were often entered into the system one bit at a time on rows of
switches or by junmper wires on plug boards. Programming languages were unknown (not
even assembly languages). Operating systems were unheard of.
Problems:
Scheduling - users sign up for machine time. Wasted computing time
Setup Time- Setup included loading the compiler, source program, saving
compiledprogram, and loading and linking. If an error occurred - start over.

The 1950's - Second Generation


with
Simple Batch Systems: By the carly 1950's, the routine had improved somewhat
implemented
the introduction of punch cards. The General Motors Research Laboratories
system of the 50's
the first operating systems in early 1950's for their IBM 701. The
generallyran one job at a time. To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are
batched together and run as a group. Thus, the programmers will leave their programs
requirements.
with the operator. The operator will sort programs into batches with similar
These were called single-stream batch processing systenms because programs and data
were submitted in groups or batches.

Problems:
Lack of interaction between the user and job.
CPUis often idle, because the speeds of the mechanical l/O devices are
slower than CPU.
2

The 1960's - Third Generation


Multiprogrammed Batch Systems (1960s Present): The systems of the 1960's were
also batch processing systems, but they were able to take better advantage of the
computer's resources by running several jobs at once. So operating systems designers
developed the concept of multiprogramming in which several jobs are in main memory at
once; aprocessor is switched from job to job as necded to keep several jobs advancing
while keeping the peripheral devices in use.

For example, on the system with no multiprogramming, when the current job paused to
wait for other V/O operation to complete, the CPU simply sat idle until the l/O finished.
The solution for this problem that evolved was to partition memory intoseveral pieces,
with a different job in each partition. While one job was waiting for I/O to complete,
another job could be using the CPU.

*SPOOLing (mid 1960s - late 1970s): Another major feature in third-generation


operating system was the technique called Spooling (Simultaneous Peripheral Operations
OnLine). In spooling, a high-speed device like a disk interposed between arunning
program anda low-speed device involved withthe program in input/[Link] of
writing directly to a printer, for example, outputs are written to the disk. Programs can
run to completion faster, and other programs can be initiated sooner when the printer
becomes available, the outputs may be printed.
Note that spooling technique is much like thread being spun to a spool so that it may be
later be unwound as needed.

Timesharing Systems (1970s - present): Another feature present in this generation was
time-sharing technique, a variant of multiprogramming technique, in which each user has
an on-line (directly connected) terminal. Because the user is present and interacting with
the computer, the computer system must respond quickly to user requests, otherwise user
productivity could suffer. Timesharing systems were developed to multiprogramming
large number of simultaneous interactiveusers.
Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming. That is
processors time is shared among multiple users simultaneously is called time-sharing.
The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing
Systems is, in Multiprogrammed batch systems its objective is maximizeprocessor use,
whereas in Time-Sharing Systems its objective is minimize response time.

Card
Rercer
SPooling
3

Fourth Generation (late 1970 - present):


Personal-Computer Systems (PCs): With the development of LSI(Large Scale
Integration) circuits, chips, operating system entered in the system entered in the personal
computer and the workstation age. Microprocessor technology evolved to the point that it
become possible to build desktop computers as powerful as the mainframes of the 1970s.
Two operating systems have dominated the personal computer scene: MS-DOS, written
by Microsoft, Inc. for the IBM PCand other machines using the Intel 8088 CPUand its
successors, and UNIX,which is dominant on the large personal computers using the
Motorola 6899 CPUfamily.
Real-Time, Multiprocessor, and Distributed/Networked Systems, Parallel System:

Areal-time computer is one that executes programs that are guaranteed to have an upper
boundon tasks that they carryout. Usually it is desired that the upper bound be very
small. Examples included guidedmissile systems and medicalmonitoring equipment.
Theoperating system on real-time computers is severely constrained by the timing
requirements.

Dedicated computers are special purpose computers that are used to perform only one or
more tasks. Often these are real-time computers and include applications such as the
guided missile mentioned above and the computer in moderm cars that controls the fuel
injection system.
Amultiprocessor computer is one with more than one CPU. The category of
multiprocessor computers can be divided into the following sub-categories:
Shared memory multiprocessors have multiple CPUs, ali with access to the
same memory. Communication between the the processors is easy to implement,
but care must be taken so that memory accesses are synchronized.
Distributed memory multiprocessors also have multiple CPUs, but each CPU
has it's own associated memory. Here, memory access synchronization is not a
problem, but communication between the processors is often slow and
complicated.

Related tomultiprocessors are the following:


Networked systems consist of multiple computers that are networked together,
usually with a common operating system and shared resources. Users, however,
are aware of the different computers that makeup the system.
Distributed systems also consist of multiple computers but differ from
networked systems in that the multiple computers are transparent to the user.
Often there are redundant resources and a sharing of the workload amnong the
different computers, but this is all transparent to the user.

Common questions

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SPOOLing improved the efficiency of multiprogrammed batch systems by enabling a high-speed device like a disk to mediate between running programs and slower I/O devices. This allowed programs to continue processing while their output was saved to disk rather than waiting for a slower device, like a printer, to become available. Consequently, this increased the throughput of the system and reduced idle time, as jobs could be queued for output while the CPU continued to process other tasks .

Advancements in LSI (Large Scale Integration) circuits and microprocessor technology in the late 1970s enabled personal computers to attain processing power comparable to 1970s mainframes. These advancements made high performance and complex computing processes available on a much smaller and affordable scale, reducing size and cost while increasing power and accessibility, which was crucial for the transition from large, centralized systems to individual, powerful desktop computers .

The emergence of UNIX significantly impacted the use of large personal computers in professional settings by providing a robust, multi-user operating system capable of supporting complex tasks. UNIX's portability, multi-user capabilities, and efficiency in handling complex computations made it ideal for professional environments requiring powerful computing resources, thus becoming dominant on large personal computers, especially those using the Motorola 6800 CPU family .

Time-sharing systems in the 1970s enhanced user-computer interaction by allowing multiple users to have an online terminal directly connected to the computer. This system required the computer to respond quickly to user inputs to maintain interactivity, which improved user productivity. Unlike multiprogrammed batch systems focusing on maximizing processor use, time-sharing systems aimed to minimize response time, thereby providing an interactive computing environment .

The introduction of personal computer systems in the late 1970s marked a significant shift from the centralized computing model of mainframes and minicomputers. Personal computers, fueled by advancements in LSI circuits and microprocessor technology, offered individual users computing power previously only accessible on large, centralized systems. Unlike mainframe systems, which focused on serving multiple users through batch and time-sharing systems, personal computers provided dedicated computing resources to single users, promoting more user autonomy and interactivity .

MS-DOS played a pivotal role in the personal computer revolution by providing a standard operating system for the IBM PC and similar machines using the Intel 8088 CPU. Its widespread adoption facilitated software development and compatibility across PC devices, laying the groundwork for the rapid proliferation of personal computers in the marketplace. This contributed to the shift away from centralized computing towards widespread, individual computer ownership and use .

Real-time computing systems are characterized by their ability to execute programs while adhering to strict timing constraints. They are critical in scenarios where timely task execution is crucial, such as in guided missile systems and medical monitoring equipment. These systems ensure tasks are completed within a pre-defined upper time limit to maintain system integrity and functionality under time-sensitive conditions .

Distributed systems differ from networked systems in that they provide a transparent interface to users, making the multiple underlying computers appear as a single coherent system. Users do not need to be aware of the distribution of resources, which allows for seamless access and management of shared computational load. This transparency offers advantages such as redundancy, balanced workloads, and improved reliability and performance, while networked systems require users to be conscious of interacting with multiple independent computers .

The introduction of multiprogramming in the 1960s addressed CPU idleness in batch processing systems by allowing several jobs to reside in the main memory simultaneously. This way, when one job had to wait for I/O operations, another job could make use of the CPU, thus keeping the CPU busy while waiting jobs were not active. This approach maximized CPU utilization and reduced idle time compared to simple batch systems where jobs were processed sequentially, often leaving the CPU idle when I/O operations were too slow .

Shared memory multiprocessor systems have multiple CPUs accessing the same shared memory, simplifying inter-CPU communication but requiring synchronization to avoid memory access conflicts. In contrast, distributed memory multiprocessor systems have CPUs with their own individual memories, avoiding synchronization issues but complicating communication, as it is slower and more complex. Each architecture has its challenges; shared memory requires careful handling of simultaneous memory access, while distributed memory requires efficient communication management .

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