CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Parasites are pathogens that simultaneously injure and derive

sustenance from its host. Some organisms called parasites are actually

commensals, in that they neither benefit nor harm their host (for instance,

Entamoeba coli). The unicellular parasites (protozoa) and multicellular

parasites (helminths, arthropods) are antigenically and biochemically

complex, as are their life histories and the pathogenesis of the diseases they

cause. During their life, parasitic organisms typically go through several

developmental stages that involve changes not only in structure but also in

biochemical and antigenic composition. They are regarded as one of the

world’s most important causes of intellectual and physical retardation

(Bethony et al., 2006).

However, a parasite is an organism that lives on or in a host organism

and gets its food from or at the expense of the host. These parasites that can

cause disease in man are categorized as protozoa, helminths and ectoparasites.

Protozoa are microscopic, one celled organisms that can be free living or

parasitic in nature. They are able to multiply in human, which contributes to

their survival and also permits serious infections to develop from just a single

organism.
1
 Helminth ranges from 15 to 35cm. They are large multicellular

organisms that are generally visible to the naked eye in their adult stages.

There are three main groups of helminths that are human parasite: (i) flatworm

(platyhelminthes), (ii) thorny headed worms (acanthocephalins), (iii) round

worms (nematode). Ecto-parasites lives on, rather than in their hosts. It

broadly includes; blood sucking arthropods such as mosquitoes. Other

examples include fleas, lice and mites.

Heavy metals are those elements having an atomic number greater

than 20 and atomic density above 5gcm-³ and must exhibit the properties of

metals. Heavy metals can be classified into two: Essential and Non-essential

heavy metals. Essential heavy metals are those required by living organism for

carrying out the fundamental processes like growth, metabolism and

development of different organs. These metals include; Cu, Fe, Mn, Co, Zn,

and Ni. They form co factors that are structurally and functionally important

for enzymes and other proteins. They are often required in trace amount of 10-

15ppm and are also known as Micronutrients. Non -essential heavy metals

include; Pb, Cd, Cr, Hg and Al. They are not required by plants even in trace

amounts, for any of the metabolic processes. Reported source of heavy metals

in the environment include; geogenic, industrial, agricultural, pharmaceutical,

domestic effluents, and atmospheric source (He et al., 2005).

2
 Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number

29. It is a red-orange metallic lustre with standard atomic weight of 63.546. It

is an essential trace mineral necessary for survival. It is found in all body

tissues and plays a role in making red blood cell and maintaining nerve cells

and the immune system. It also helps in the body form collagen and absorb

ion, and play a role in energy production (Dumestre et al., 1999).

Most copper in the body is found in the liver, brain, heart, kidney, and

skeletal muscle. Both too much and too little copper can affect how the brain

works. Copper deficiency is rare but can lead to cardiovascular disease and

other problems. Copper is an essential element and is required by all

organisms. However, elevated concentrations of copper in soils are toxic and

may result in a range of effects including reduced biological activity and

subsequently loss of fertility (Dumestre et al., 1999).

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of copper Cu on soil

parasites in soil around Dangote cement factory site at Ibeshe, Ogun State, in

order to achieve this aim, the following are the objective of this study:

(i) To investigate the parasite present in soils around a cement factory site

using Cobb's decanting and sieving method.

(ii) To determine the effect of copper on soil parasites.

3
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 SOIL PARASITES

Soil-parasites are worms that to complete its life cycle requires

appropriate soil to develop into the infective [Link] are three common

species of soil parasites which are roundworms (Ascaris lumbricoides),

whipworm(Trichuris trichiura), hookworm (Necator americanus

andAncylostoma duodenale) and Strongyloides stercoralis four first-

mentioned species are endemic worm.

2.2 ROUNDWORM (Ascaris lumbricoides)

Humans are the only host of Ascaris lumbricoides. The disease caused

by this is called ascariasis. Ascaririasis is a cosmopolitan parasitic infection.

2.2.1 Taxonomy of Ascaris lumbricoides

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Nematoda

Class: Secernentea

Order: Ascaridida

Famil: Asarididae

Genus: Ascaris

Species: A. lumbricoides
4
2.2.2 Morphology and life cycle

Ascaris lumbricoides is the largest nematode worm parasites living in

human intestine. It’s cylindrical shape and red so-called roundworm. Male

adult worm sized is 15-25 cm x 3 mm and female is 25-35 cm x 4 mm.

Female worm can lay up to 200,000 eggs a day, which can lasted for her

lifetime which is approximately 1-2 years. This worm eggs do not hatch in the

human body but is release with the host feces. There are two types of worm

eggs, fertilized and unfertilized.

Fertilized eggs generally sized 60 x 45 microns, with fertilized-

corticated have a cortex and fertilized-uncorticated cortex does not have a

cortex. Unfertilized egg, is not fertilized yet, generally sized 90 x 40 microns

and more oval and contains no embryo. Worm's life cycle includes the

processes of ascariasis transmission in humans. Eggs released by the worm

through human faeces will develop into infertile and fertile eggs. Fertile eggs

will develop into embryos and infective larvae if the environment is suitable

to growth. When infective form ingested by humans it will hatch into larvae in

the small intestine.

The larvae then exit through the wall into the circulatory system or

lymphatic system. The larvae will go to the lungs, trachea, pharynx,

esophagus and swallowing enter to the small intestine. In the small intestine

the larvae turn into adults. This worm's life cycle lasts 2-3 months.
5
2.3 HOOKWORMS (Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale)

There are two species of hookworms that cause disease in humans,

which is Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale. The first two

species are commonly found in Asia and Africa. The disease is caused by a

hookworm called necatoriasis and ancilostomiasis.

2.3.1 Taxonomy of Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Nematoda

Class: Rhabditea

Order: Strongylida

Family: Ancylostomatidae

Genus: Necator americanus

Specie: Ancylostoma duodenale

2.3.2 Morphology and Life Cycle of Hookworms

[Link] adult form is a cylindrical or the letter S, while the form

of A. Duodenale is the letter C. Female worms sized ± 1 cm long and male

worms sized 0.8 cm ±, with [Link] sized slightly larger than

[Link]. [Link] adult worms have two pairs of ventral triangular

teeth called triangular cutting plates, while [Link] mouth only has a

pair of crescent-shaped cutting plates (semilunar cutting plates).

6
[Link] is capable to produce 10,000-25,000 eggs per day and

[Link] is 5,000-10,000 eggs per day.

2.4 WHIPWORMS (Trichuris trichiura)

Trichuriasis is a disease caused by Trichuris trichiura known as

whipworm. Humans are the definitive host and its main habitat in the large

intestine although also can be found in caecum and appendix.

2.4.1 Taxonomy of Trichuris trichiura

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Nematoda

Class: Adenophorea

Order: Trichocephalida

Family: Trichuridae

Genus: Trichuris

Species: [Link]

2.4.2 Morphology and life cycle of Trichuris trichiura

Trichuris trichiura is a small worm with whip-shaped. Female worm

length of approximately 5 cm, while the male worms of approximately 4 cm.

Anterior part of worm is slender whip-like and posterior part fatter, in female

worms it shape more blunt rounded. Adult worms live in ascending colon with

7
anterior portion of it, which is whip-shaped, immersed in the intestinal wall to

sucking blood. An adult female worm is capable of producing 3000-20000

eggs per day. Trichuris eggs typical shaped like a barrel/can and have two

distinct mucoid polar plugs. Eggs that passed out with faeces in the immature

state and non-infective. The eggs will mature in soil that is conducive within

3-6 weeks to form infective eggs containing embryo.

2.5 HEAVY METALS

With the development of economy and society, heavy metal

contamination has become increasingly common in the world. It is almost a

serious threat to every country. Metal contamination is colorless and odorless,

so it is difficult to be noticed. It does not explicitly damage the environment in

a short period. Nevertheless, when it exceeds the environmental tolerance, or

when environmental conditions have changed, heavy metals in the soil may be

activated and cause serious ecological damage. So heavy metal contamination

is usually chemical Time Bombs (CTBs).

2.5.1 Heavy Metal Contamination

In the past, soil contamination was mainly caused by a single heavy

metal. However, in recent years more cases are found to be caused by a

variety of heavy metals. The complex contamination caused by a variety of

8
heavy metals will always amplify the contamination by heavy metals

separately. In biological system, heavy metals have been reported to affect

cellular organelles and components such as cell membrane, mitochondrial,

lysosome, endoplasmic reticulum, nuclei and some enzymes involved in

metabolism, detoxification, and damage repair (Wang S, Shix, 2001).

2.5.2 Sources of Heavy Metals

Excess heavy metals in the soil originate from many sources, which

include atmospheric deposition, sewage irrigation, improper stacking of the

industrial solid waste, mining activities, the use of pesticides and fertilizers.

2.5.3 Atmosphere to Soils Pathway

Heavy metals in the atmosphere are mainly from gas and dust

produced by energy, transport, metallurgy and production of construction

materials. Excepting mercury, heavy metals basically go into the atmosphere

in the form of aerosol and deposit to the soil through natural sedimentation

and precipitation, etc. For example, the lead pollution in a downtown, Central

Sweden, was reported mainly from the urban industrial copper plant, sulfuric

acid plant, paint factory, and the large amount of waste from mining and

chemical industries. Due to transporting by wind, these fine lead particles

spread from industrial waste heap to surrounding areas.

9
2.5 COPPER AS A HEAVY METAL

Copper is a trace metal essential for living organisms but when high

soil concentrations are reached, copper becomes one of the most toxic heavy

metals to small invertebrates (Gerhardt, 1993). When discussing heavy metals

as soil contaminants it is important to refer to the concept of bioavailability

(John & Leventhal, 1995).

Bioavailability is the proportion of total metals that are available for

incorporation into the biota. Most metals in the environment are bound with

inorganic molecules such as sulfur compounds and even when ingested are

not chemically active in the body. Unfortunately however, heavy metals are

often bioavailable and are known to have adverse effects on small

invertebrates (Bednarska et al., 2017).

Bioavailable copper chloride (II) has previously been found in soils

contaminated by several anthropogenic actions, such as industrial areas, mine

tailings, disposal of high metal wastes, leaded gasoline and paints, land

application of fertilizers, animal manures, sewage sludge, pesticides,

wastewater irrigation, coal combustion residues and spillage of

petrochemicals.

10
 Copper is one of the few metals that can occur in nature directly usable

metallic form. It is the first metal to be casted into a shape in a mold, and the

first metal to be purposely alloyed with another metal (tin), to create bronze

(Mc Henry, Charles, 1992).

11
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 MATERIALS

3.1.1 Study area

The study was carried out around a cement factory, at Ibese , Ogun

State. Soil samples were randomly collected from four sampling sites which

include Baale's place, under shield, Dump site, and opposite the cement

factory. The coordinate of the area is Latitude 6° 58' 0" North, Longitude 3° 2'

0" East. Ibese is formerly known as Egbado North, Ogun State, Nigeria. The

town is also located on the tropical rain forest belt with hot and humid

climatic condition. The indigene of the town are Yoruba’s with very low

number of non- indigene.

3.1.2 Sampling and Sampling Techniques

About 0-10cm deep of the top soil was collected using a pipe. Three

different samples were randomly taken at the same sample station. Therefore,

a total of 14 samples were collected randomly from the study site.

12
3.2 METHODS

3.2.1 Sampling Preparation

The soil samples were air – dried and then divided into two for both

heavy metal analysis and Cobb’s decanting and sieving method. 10g each of

the soil samples were transported to the soil analytical laboratory for heavy

metals analysis in which only 1g was used. Another 10g of each soil was

taken for Cobb's decanting and sieving method to check for the parasites

present in each sample.

3.2.2 Procedure for Heavy metals (copper) Analysis

1 g of soil sample was weighed into the digestion tube. 10mls of nitric

per chloric acid was added and then placed in the digester. After it has been

digested, it was washed up to 25mls with distilled water and it was then

filtered.

The filtrate was taken to the Atomic absorption spectrophotometer to

read for the level of copper present in the sample using copper hallow cathode

camp.

3.2.3 Cobb's Decanting and Sieving Procedure

10g of soil was weighed in a white bucket. Then, 2litre of water was

added. It was stirred, allowed to settle and the suspension was decanted into

another neat bucket. The residue in the bucket was washed off.
13
 A liter of Water was added, stirred and decanted. The method was

repeated again. The water decanted into the bucket was then poured into

710mm sieve. The filtrate was poured into 150mm sieve to obtain the residue.

The residue in the sieve was poured into the petri dish and stained with eosin

solution added. The filtrate of the 150mm sieve was poured into 55mm sieve

and its filtrate was left overnight to settle.

The next day, the excess water of the filtrate was decanted. The

sediment was poured into the centrifuge tube and centrifuged at 1500per

minute for 3minutes. It was then viewed under the microscope using X10 and

X40 objective lens. The pellet was then disposed.

About 5ml of floatation fluid was added to the supernatant. It was

vortexes (circular motion) for 5seconds at medium speed and was then

centrifuged again at 1000revolution per minute for 10minutes. Then the

supernatant was carefully withdrawn with a serological pipette and viewed

again under the microscope.

3.2.4 Preparation of Eosin Solution and staining Techniques

10 mls of ethanol was added into 1 g of eosin powder. It was stirred till

dissolve and left to stand for some moment before use. 8 mls of eosin powder

was added to the residue in the petri dish and left to dry off.

14
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Table 1: Result of parasite and the Cu present in soil sample

collected from Abule afaami, Baale’s front.

The table 1 below represents sample A, B, C taken from Abule

Afaami, Baale’s place. It reveals that 11.73 mg/kg, 8.03 mg/kg, and 7.53

mg/kg of copper were present in 10 g of sample A, B, C collected from the

sample site while no parasites were present in the reported area.

Sample Qty(g) Cu Content (mg/kg) Parasite

A 10 11.75 Nil

B 10 8.03 Nil

C 10 7.53 Nil

15
4.2 Table 2: Result of parasite and the Cu present in soil sample

collected from Abule afaami, under shield.

The table 2 below represents samples collected at Abule Afaami,

under shield. It reveals that 4.80 mg/kg, 7.03 mg/kg and 4.33 mg/kg of copper

were present in the samples collected and no parasite was present in it.

Sample Qty (g) Cu Content (mg/kg) Parasite

A 10 4.80 Nil

B 10 7.03 Nil

C 10 4.33 Nil

16
4.3 Table 3: Result of parasite and the Cu present in soil sample

collected from Abule afaami, dump site.

The table 3 below represents sample A, B, C taken at Abule afaami,

dump site. It shows that 18.35 mg/kg, 10.60 mg/kg and 4.13 mg/kg of copper

were present in the soil sample taken from the sample station while no

parasites were present in it.

Samples Qty (g) Cu Content (mg/kg) Parasite

A 10 18.35 Nil

B 10 10.60 Nil

C 10 4.13 Nil

17
4.4 Table 4: Result of parasite and the Cu present in soil sample

collected from Abule afaami, open space.

The table 4 below represents samples collected at Abule afaami, open

space, behind public borehole. It reveals that 13.13 mg/kg, 3.15 mg/kg, and

12.43 mg/kg of copper were present in 10 g each of the soil from the site,

while no parasite was found in the sample.

Samples Qty (g) Cu Content (mg/kg) Parasaite

A 10 13.13 NIL

B 10 3.15 NIL

C 10 12.43 NIL

18
4.5 FIGURE 1: Result of parasite and the Cu present in soil sample
collected from the open space, opposite Dangote’s cement factory.

14 12.23
12

10 8.4

2
0
0 Cu QTY (mg/kg)
The above figure shows sample A and B collected at the open space

opposite Dangote’s cement factory gate, ibese. It shows that 8.4 mg/kg and

12.23 mg/kg of copper were present in the soil sample taken from the site,

while no parasite was found in it.

19
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

The result obtained from the study shows that the parasitology of the

sample was negative. It is possible that the presence of the cement factory

affects the growth of soil parasites thereby increasing the amount of heavy

metals present in the soil.

Finally, this study indicates that heavy metal toxicity affects soil

health. High concentration of heavy metals reduces beneficial microbial

activity and function.

20
5.2 RECOMMENDATION

Sequels to this study, the following recommendations were made;

1. There should be creation of awareness about the usefulness of soil microbes

and the effect of heavy metals on them.

2. Though, cement is an essential material for human survival nowadays.

There's no alternative to the production of cement but ways and means of

industrial pollution should be curbed.

3. Further research should be made to be sure the heavy metals have an effect

only on the soil and not also on the human.

4. Federal government should enforce a law that industries should be sited

very far from residential areas.

21
 REFERENCES

Bednarska A. J., Choczyński M., Laskowski R., Walczak M., (2017),

Combined effects of chlorpyriphos, copper and temperature on

acetylcholinesterase activity and toxico kinetic of the chemicals in the

earthworm Eisenia fetida, Environmental Pollution, Volume 220, Part

A, January 2017, Pages 567-576, ISSN [Link]

/10.1016/[Link].2016.10.004.

Bethony J., Brooken S., Albonico M., Geiger S.M., Loukas A., Diemert D.,

Hotez P.J., (2006) ‘Soil transmitted helminth infections: ascariasis,

trichuriasis, and hookworm’. Lancet. 367 (9521): 1521 – 32.

Davis A, Ruby M.V., & Bergstrom P.D., (1994) Factors controlling lead

bioavailability in the Butte mining district, Environment Geochemistry

Health 16: 147. doi 10.1007/BF01747911.

Dumestre A., Sauve S., Mc bride M., Baveye P., Bertherlin J., (1999) copper

speciation and microbial activity in long term contaminated soils.

Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology 36, 124-131.

22
Gerhard A., (1993). Review of impact of heavy metals on stream invertebrates

with special emphasis on acid conditions. Water Air Soil Pollut (1993)

66: 289. doi: 10.1007/BF00479852.

He ZL., Yang X.E., Stofella P.J., Trace elements in agro ecosystems and

impacts on the environment. J trace Elem Med Biol. 2005; 19 (2-3):

125-140.

John D., and Leventhal J., (1995). Bioavailability of Metals. USGS Science

for a greater good.

MC Henry., Charles., ed. (1992). The New Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.

P.612. ISBN 978-0-85229-553-3.

Wang S., Shix X., Molecular mechanisms of metal toxicity and

carcinogenesis. Mol cell Biochem. 2001; 222: 3-9.

23