Introduction to physiology

Cell Physiology
‫د مقداد فؤاد‬.‫م‬.‫أ‬
‫طبيب اختصاص جراحة عامة‬
Definition of physiology
Physiology is the study of normal function of
living organism. It includes many branches like
viral physiology, bacterial physiology, cellular
physiology, animal physiology & human
physiology.
Human Physiology
It is the branch of physiology which is concerned
with
1. function of entire human body; from the
subcellular component to organ& organ system.
2. How these functions are performed& how they
are integrated.
Homeostasis
All living organism composed of cells. Cells of
body don’t only contain water, but also surrounded
by water (intracellular& extracellular
compartments).
The extracellular fluid is the link between the
external world& the cells. It carries the nutrient to
the cells& eliminates their waste products. It
circulates between any cells in the body& provides
for them a homogenous environment.
In other words, it is essential for survival of the
cells. Disturbance of the extracellular fluid impairs
functions of cells& result in a disease
As the extracellular fluid is very important for
the normal body functions, it is described as the
“internal environment”.
Homeostasis can be defined as maintenance of
the normal constant.
Homeostasis
the tendency of biological systems to
maintain relatively constant conditions in
the internal environment while
continuously interacting with and adjusting
to changes originating within or outside
the system. Homeostasis actually involves
continuous motion, adaptation, and
change in response to environmental
factors.
Examples of homeostasis
1. Body temperature is kept within normal range
2. The osmotic pressure of the blood and hydrogen
ion concentration (pH) is kept within strict limits,
3. Nutrients are supplied to cells as needed, and
waste products removed before they accumulate
and reach toxic levels of concentration.
4. These are a few examples of the thousands
of homeostatic control systems within the body.
Some operate within the cell and others operate
within aggregate of cells (organs) to control the
complex interrelationships among the various
organs.
The cell structure
Cell membrane
It consist of phospholipid bilayer (25%) with proteins
(about 50%); plus some cholesterol (13%),carbohydrate
(3%)& other lipids.
The phospholipid have hydrophilic part (phosphate)
facing outside & hydrophobic part (fatty acid) facing
inside i.e in the interior of membrane. Thickness =7.5nm
(75 Angstrom)
It is semipermeable membrane (allow passage of lipid
soluble substance& prevent passage of water& water
soluble ones).
However, the protein channels& carriers in the
membrane facilitate passage of many substances.
Cell membrane contains 2 types of
protein:
1)Peripheral proteins
2)Integral proteins
 Peripheral proteins attached to one side of
the cell membrane (usually the inner
surface).
 Integral proteins: extend throughout the
cell membrane.
Function of protein in the cell membrane:
1)Offer structural support to the membrane
(cytoskeleton).
2)Act as an adhesion molecules (connect cells
together).
3)Act as an enzymes (catalyze chemical reactions
on the cell membrane).
4)Act as antigens (usually glycoproteins like the
blood group antigens on the surface of RBCs &the
HLA Ags (human leukocyte Ags) on the surface of
all nucleated cells. HLA Ags also called MHC Ags.
They are encoded by group of genes in the short
arm (p arm) of chromosome 6. They include
different classes (e.g. I, II& III).
MHC mean major histocompatibility
complex. HLA Ags are unique for each
person; that is why they are used by
the immune system to distinguish self-
cells or Ags from non-self-cells or Ags.
HLA or what is also named MHC are
considered in selection of a donor in
organ transplantation.
5) Act as ion channels for the movement of
water and ions across the cell membrane
(osmosis & simple diffusion).
6) Act as carriers for passive transport of certain
substance across the cell membrane (facilitated
diffusion).
7) Act as pumps for active transport of certain
substance across the cell membrane (active
transport).
8) Act as receptor for hormones &
neurotransmitter.
Remember that:
 Peripheral proteins act as enzymes whereas
the integral proteins carry out other functions
 Carbohydrates on the surface of cell membrane
are either attached to protein (forming
glycoprotein) or lipids (forming glycolipids).
The nucleus
Contain chromatin (DNA) which condenses to
form chromosomes before cell division. The
DNA replicates during cell division to carry
genetic material from the mother cells to the
daughter cells.
The nucleus also contains one or more nucleoli
rich in ribosomal RNA
RNA
The chemical structure of RNA is very similar to that of
DNA, but differs in three main ways:
1. Unlike double-stranded DNA, RNA is a single-stranded
molecule and has a much shorter chain of nucleotides.
However, RNA can be double helixes, as in tRNA
(transfer RNA)
2. While DNA contains deoxyribose, RNA contains ribose
(in deoxyribose there is no hydroxyl group attached to
the pentose ring in the 2' position). These hydroxyl
groups make RNA less stable than DNA because it is
more prone to hydrolysis.
3. The complementary base to adenine in DNA is thymine,
whereas in RNA, it is uracil, which is an unmethylated
form of thymine.
Types of RNA
[Link] RNA (mRNA) is the RNA that carries
information from DNA to the ribosome, the sites of
protein synthesis (translation) in the cell. The
coding sequence of the mRNA determines the
amino acid sequence in the protein that is
produced.
[Link] RNA (tRNA) is a small RNA chain of
about 80 nucleotides that transfers a specific
amino acid to the ribosomes in the rough
endoplasmic reticulum for protein synthesis during
translation.
[Link] RNA (rRNA) links amino acids
together to form proteins
Remembers
Adenine and guanine are purines, cytosine and
uracil are pyrimidines.
Synthesis of RNA is usually catalyzed by an
enzyme—RNA polymerase—using DNA as a
template, a process known as transcription.
The proteins which is synthesized may act with
in the cell or may be packed within vesicles (in
the Golgi apparatus for secretion to outside).
The endoplasmic reticulum (EPR)
Complex meshwork of canals & vesicles extending
from the nucleus to the exterior of the cell.
Two types of EPR
1)Smooth endoplasmic reticulum:-
 Has no ribosomes on it's surface
 For synthesis of lipid steroids
 Contain enzyme for certain metabolic functions
within the cell (e.g. detoxification of foreign
substance e.g. drugs)
1)Rough endoplasmic reticulum:-
 Has ribosome on it is surface
 For protein synthesis
Structure of the endoplasmic reticulum
The Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus is closely related to the endoplasmic
reticulum. It has membranes similar to those of the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum. It usually is composed of enclosed
vesicles lying near one side of the nucleus. This apparatus is
prominent in secretory cells, where it is located on the side of
the cell from which the secretory substances are extruded. The
Golgi apparatus functions in association with the endoplasmic
reticulum. Small “transport vesicles” (also called
endoplasmic reticulum vesicles, or ER vesicles) continually
pinch off from the endoplasmic reticulum and shortly thereafter
fuse with the Golgi apparatus. In this way, substances
entrapped in the ER vesicles are transported from the
endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus. The transported
substances are then processed in the Golgi apparatus to form
lysosomes, secretory vesicles, and other cytoplasmic
components.
typical Golgi apparatus and its relationship to the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the nucleus
Secretory granules (secretory vesicles) in acinar
cells of the pancreas
Figure 6
Formation of proteins, lipids, and cellular vesicles by the endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus
The mitochondria
The power houses of the cells (provide the energy used
by the cell to perform its functions). They are abundant
in certain cells like endocrine cells, parietal cells& renal
cells (because these cells need energy for synthesis of
hormones or active transport of ion “like parietal cells in
the body of stomach”).
Each mitochondria is surrounded by two phospholipid
bilayer membrane. the cristae & the inner cavity of
mitochondria (the matrix) contain the respiratory
enzymes needed for oxidative phosphorylation of
glucose to release large amount of energy in the form of
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate).
Each mitochondria contain DNA that plays a role in
the formation of few mitochondrial proteins (using
mitochondrial ribosomes) & in its own replication
Abnormalities of mitochondrial DNA may result in
certain diseases usually affect the high energy
tissues (muscles, heart&brain).
These diseases always inherited from mothers
(Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is not transmitted
through nuclear DNA (nDNA). In humans, as in
most multicellular organisms, mitochondrial DNA is
inherited only from the mother's ovum. There are
theories, however, that paternal mtDNA
transmission in humans can occur under certain
circumstances.
Structure of a mitochondrion
Mitochondrial inheritance
In most multicellular organisms, mtDNA is inherited from
the mother (maternally inherited). Mechanisms for this
include:-
1. An egg contains on average 200,000 mtDNA
molecules, whereas a healthy human sperm was
reported to contain on average 5 molecules
2. Degradation of sperm mtDNA in the female genital
tract, in the fertilized egg, and some times failure of
sperm mtDNA to enter the egg.
Whatever the mechanism, this single parent (uniparental
inheritance) pattern of mtDNA inheritance is found in most
animals, most plants and in fungi as well.
Mitochondrial inheritance is therefore non-
Mendelian , as Mendelian inheritance presumes
that half the genetic material of a fertilized egg
(zygote) derives from each parent.
Lysosomes
Are vesicular organelles that form by breaking off
from the Golgi apparatus and then dispersing
throughout the cytoplasm. The lysosomes provide
an intracellular digestive system that allows the
cell to digest :-
(1)Damaged cellular structures,
(2) Food particles that have been ingested by
the cell, and
(3)Unwanted matter such as bacteria.
Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes
(protease, lipase, carbohydras&
nucleases) that are used in hydrolysis
or digestion of engulfed material (e.g.
digestion of bacteria with in vacuoles of
WBCs.
• Ordinarily, the membrane surrounding the
lysosome prevents the enclosed hydrolytic
enzymes from coming in contact with other
substances in the cell and, therefore, prevents
their digestive actions. However, some
conditions of the cell break the membranes of
some of the lysosomes, allowing release of the
digestive enzymes. These enzymes then split
the organic substances with which they come in
contact into small, highly diffusible substances
such as amino acids and glucose.
Transport mechanism across the cell
membrane
• There are constant movement of O2,CO2,
nutrients, electrolytes& waste products across
the cell membrane. A variety of transport
mechanisms are involved, these are generally
classified into passive& active transport
mechanisms.
Passive transport mechani[Link]
Don’t consume energy in transport
Transport substances from area of higher
concentration to area of low concentration (i.e.
down the concentration or electrical gradient)
Either don’t use carriers (as simple diffusion) or
use carrier (as facilitated diffusion)
Active transport mechani[Link]
Consume energy in transport
Transport substances from area of lower
concentration to area of higher concentration (i.e.
against concentration or electrical gradient)
Always need carriers for transport.
Remembers:-
[Link] of a substance against its chemical or
electrical gradient with consumption of energy&
usage of carrier is known as primary active
transport.
[Link] of a substance with another substance
that’s transported activity is known as secondary
active transport. The substance uses the same
carrier that used by other substance.
[Link] active transport (also known as co-
transport) may occur in the same direction of the
primary substance (=symport), or in the opposite
direction (= antiport).
Substances transported by simple diffusion
 Diffusion is the process by which a substance
expands, because of random movement of its
particles to fill the available volume.
 Nonpolar substances transported by simple
diffusion include:
Fatty acids.
Steroid hormones synthesized from cholesterol.
Gasses (O 2 &CO2)
- Simple diffusion of polar substances (water
soluble substances) like ion is low. However, it
can occur through certain ion channels (integral
proteins in the cell membrane)
- Passive diffusion of water through cell
membrane is known as osmosis. It occurs
through certain water channels known as
aquaporin. Water moves from the side of low
concentration of solute to the side of higher
concentration of solute.
Substances transported by facilitated
diffusion:-
 Don’t consume energy.
 Have maximum rate of transport that depends
on the density of carriers on the cell membrane.
The maximum rate is reached when all carriers
are saturated.
 Example includes transport of glucose from
basolateral membrane of renal & intestinal
cells& its absorption from ECF by most cells of
body.
substance transported actively:
 The well-known example of primary active transport is
the pump that transport sodium& potassium against
their concentration (= the Na+/ K+ pump). It transports
3 atoms of sodium from ICF to ECF in exchange to 2
atoms of potassium from ECF to ICF.
 The well-known example of secondary active transport
is transport of glucose (coupled to sodium) through the
luminal membrane of the bowel& renal cells.
 Secretion of hydrogen by renal cells is another
example of secondary active transport. However
hydrogen ion moves in opposite direction to sodium
(antiport).
Other transport mechanisms
 Endocytosis (active vesicular transport )
Endocytosis is the uptake of molecules into cells.
Here a molecule fuses with the cell membrane.
Inviginates it& then the invagination is separated
from the cell membrane to form a vesicles.
Special protein may facilitated the process of
endocytosis (Clathrin& dynamin)
When engulfed substance is dissolved in fluid, the
process is known as pinocytosis (cell drinking);
& when particulate matter or bacteria, the process
known as phagocytosis (cell eating).
Exocytosis (active vesicular transport)
Exocytosis is the release of substance from
cells, (i.e. opposite endocytosis). Proteins
synthesized with in the cell are usually packed
into secretory vesicles& secreted by exocytosis.
Notice that exocytosis requires calcium,
energy,& certain proteins.
Solvent drag (passive transport)
During diffusion of solvent, it tends to drag
some solute with it. This occurs in capillaries.
Transport proteins “carrier ,pumps& ion
channels ”
These are highly specialized trans-membrane
proteins that allow passage of water, ion, glucose,
urea& other substances through the cell
membrane.
The carrier changes their shape (configuration)
when they bind their substances to move them
from one side of the cell membrane to other side.
Usually down chemical or electrical gradients (=
facilitated) diffusion.
• The pumps act as ATPase enzyme to catalyze
hydrolysis of ATP. The released energy used in
active transport of substances, against their
chemical or electrical gradients.
Example include Na+ /K+ ATPase pump, the
proton pump in the parietal cells& calcium
ATPase pump.
Remember that the active transport either
primary active or secondary active.
 The ion channels allow simple diffusion
(down chemical or electrical gradient) they
include:
[Link] channels
Always open
Example: potassium leak channels which are
responsible for the resting membrane potential.
Resting membrane potential present in almost
all cells in the body.
B. Voltage gated channels
Have gates that open or close in response to
change in voltage or (potentials) in the cell
membrane.
Example: voltage gated sodium channels&
voltage gated potassium channels which are
responsible for depolarization& repolarization
phases of action potentiate respectively.
Action potentials are only found in excitable
tissues (neuron& muscle).
C. Ligand gated channels
Have gate that open when certain membrane
receptor bind to specific neurotransmitters or
hormones& closed when these chemical are
released from the receptors.
D. Mechano-sensitive channels
Have gates that open in response to direct
mechanical stimulation of the cell membrane
They are involved in movement of some cells.
Mechanism of pinocytosis
 Digestion of substances in pinocytotic or
phagocytic vesicles by enzymes derived from
lysosomes
And what?
Nothing
That's all….