[Link] [Link].

id

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Iron Man I, Iron Man 2 and Department of Defense's (DoD's)

Iron Man 1 (2008) includes a sequence in which Iron Man (Tony Stark) can
defeat a rebel insurrection in Afghanistan without harming any civilians in the
Middle East because of the intelligence of his weaponry systems. In parts, many
audiences wanted the U.S. military to minimize civilian casualties in the real world
and the make-believe world of a summer blockbuster superhero movie, which is
why the moment is so decisive. The scene is also potentially offensive since civilian
casualties continue to be accurate throughout all military conflicts, including those
from the Middle East.
Iron Man 2 (2010) is a film that still carries the influence of the cold war.
Perhaps because it was adapted from a comic version published in the 1960s, this
film still places the conflict between the United States (U.S.) and Russia, which was
fighting for supremacy, both in the scientific realm and weapons. The film Iron
Man 2 is a part of the propaganda that wants to put the U.S. as the winner of the
war and the owner of supremacy in the field of science.
Tony Stark, the guy inside the iron suit, on the other side, is the embodiment of
America's revered military industry. Tony's multibillion-dollar company, Stark
Industries, produced its money by manufacturing weapons. Tony and his father,
Howard Stark, both have close ties to the Dod and its affiliates. Stark Companies is
depicted as a partner of the military services and a defender of individual freedom.

Hollywood and the U.S. military have a long history of partnership. Marvel
Studios has openly collaborated with the Pentagon on a number of films, including
Captain America: Winter Soldier, Captain Marvel and even the highly anticipated
Top Gun: Maverick, gaining access to military equipment and locations in exchange
for a pro-military, Department of Defense approved script (Butler, 2021). In return

14
[Link] [Link]

locations in exchange for a pro-military, Department of Defense approved script

(Butler, 2021). In return for the use of army personnel, facilities, and sites, the
Pentagon not only improves the military's pop culture portrait and influences
hiring, but it also has a huge impact on the film's content (Whalen, 2019). This is
frequently linked to specific promotion campaigns.
The majority of movie fans are uncertain that many big-budget blockbusters
are produced with the direct assistance and supervision of the U.S. government.
Hollywood studios get their hands-on aircraft carriers, F-16 fighter jets, tanks, and
other high-tech military hardware provided by the government. According to a
report released by Tom Secker and Matthew Alford, state agencies have been
evaluating, rejecting, and significantly modifying the scripts and storylines of
significant Hollywood blockbusters in terms of promoting their policy goals.
Secker and Alford claim that over 1,800 movies and TV shows have been shaped
in some cases by state agencies, based on documents obtained through the
Freedom of Information Act; an incredible number that surpasses any previous
estimates of a predominantly stealthy method. (Shafiq, 2019). As a result, the
government has the power to direct how a film portrays the military. In other
words, the DOD should make sure that movies about the military and its
technology show the military in a positive light. Advertising for the military via
cinema is not always a bad idea.’
Both Iron Man 1 & Iron Man 2 movies were developed with military funding
through License No. SAPA-LA 002-2007 and SAFPA-LA 001—2009 licensing
agreement between the Pentagon and Marvel Studios, in this case, $20 million in
equipment and site insurance — and the complete script approval was given to the
Department of Defense (DoD) (Adlakha, 2019).
In exchange for military support, Marvel Studios agreed in a license
agreement with the Department of Defense for Iron Man to obey the "DoD-
Approved" proposal of the movie script, sequence the Pentagon into the editorial
process, and cast only characters who met "U.S. military physical, age, and
grooming standards." Following the film's release, Marvel Studios agreed to
"mutually advantageous promotional campaigns," including "inspiring recruiter

15
[Link] [Link]

engagement." The military supplied technical assistance, sites, and up to 60

military members to fit the role as background extras for Iron Man 2 (Whalen,
2019).
The U.S army is well known around the world for being one of the most well-
funded parts of the government, according to the U.S. In 2019, the Department of
Defense (DOD) spend approximately $718 billion. It has supported and assisted
movies that feature military equipment since the 1920s (Winter, 2021). As a
consequence, films featuring military equipment should have their scripts
reviewed by the Department of Defense. As a result, the government has the
authority to direct how a movie portrays the army. In short, the DOD can confirm
that films that feature the military and its technology only portray the military in a
positive light. While it is not objectively wrong to recruit for the military using
cinema in all ways, doing it from a biased perspective is unacceptable. It provides
a glamorized portrayal of what it is like to be in the military, creating a desire to
enlist and setting unreal expectations.
When screenwriters or directors reach the Pentagon and request access to
military equipment to assist a movie production, first they must submit their
scripts for screening to the entertainment liaison offices. If the DOD objects to
certain characters, actions, or dialogues, the director must make alterations to
meet the military's requirements. If they are objected, the Pentagon will take back
its belongings (Secker & Alford, 2017). To get total support, the producers must
sign Production Assistance Agreements, which bind them to utilize a script that
the military has approved. When performers and directors improvise outside of
the approved screenplay, which can lead to conflicts.
That the Pentagon took part in Iron Man 1 & Iron Man 2 was proven in the
film's credits providing a special thanks to the "Pentagon liaison officer" who
evaluated the entire scripts and offered access and equipment only if the finished
screenplay met the military's criteria (Yu, 2021). Nonetheless, the Pentagon
accepted Iron Man 1 & Iron Man 2 despite its thematic considerations of military
forces because it provides an affirmation for an American concept of equality
namely there can be a good honorable war. Colonel James Rhodes (Terrance

16
[Link] [Link]

Howard), the film's surrogate for the United States military, is Tony's closest
buddy, an honorable serviceman who becomes his best friend. Furthermore, in
Iron Man 2, Rhodes is renamed War Machine, a superhero he created.
The film production can assist in the creation of a famous national defense
vision that is supported by the DOD's objectives and operations. As a result,
through seeing Iron Man 1 & Iron Man 2, The audience is expected to understand
about the United States military and its missions. Through its involvement in film
production, the Pentagon can connect a specific portrayal of military strength and
geopolitical identity that is typically limited to press releases, policy documents,
and military assessments to the activity of filmmaking.

B. American Propaganda

Jowett and O'Donnell (in McQuail & Deuze, 2020) propaganda is described
as a systematic attempt to shape expectations, manipulate perceptions, and guide
action in order to accomplish the propagandist's desired results. McQuail & Deuze
(2020) also illustrates that the connotation of the term propaganda tends to be
negative. In addition, Laswell (in Nurudin, 2008) states that propaganda is merely
the control of opinion which is carried out through symbols that have meaning, or
conveys certain opinions that are concrete and accurate through stories, rumors,
pictures and other forms that can be used in social communication.

Those who highlighted the term's negative meaning and presumed that
propaganda could be a significant barrier to democracy confronted the viewpoint
on propaganda. Because the term "propaganda" had such a bad meaning in the
eyes of most people during the 1920s, the phrase "public relations" was used as an
alternative. However, propaganda was inevitable in 1930s America, from radio
advertisements to pro-government or anti-fascist statements in infotainment
movies, to daily paper opinion writers, politicians, religious leaders, and famous
people (Hobbs & McGee, 2014).

17
[Link] [Link]

During the First World War, at the turn of the twentieth century, the
governments of Germany, the United Kingdom, and the U.S. started
systematically using the power of public communication to influence public
opinion through propaganda. President Wilson was required to rally American
involvement in the war in 1917, so he formed the Committee on Public
Information (CPI). The CPI became the nation's first "propaganda ministry" under
the direction of George Creel, with a well almost $10 million spending plan. The
CPI wrote media articles for the press and supervised the media, relying on
newspapers, films, and influencing local leaders recognized as the "Four Minute
Men," a group of 75,000 motivational speakers who presented war status reports
at cinemas and other large events across the nation (Hobbs & McGee, 2014).

Censorship and propaganda are two valuable tools in today's media collaboration
with the government, according to the father of modern American journalism.
Censorship limits the spread of information that is crucial for democracy and
decreases the possibility of separatism. Propaganda can infiltrate the media with
false, misrepresentative, or biased information in attempting to manipulate the
behavior of societies domestically and overseas. Censorship and propaganda
occur in the mainstream press and take many forms, including the use of
anonymous sources in national defense narratives, the use of the same prestigious
references repetitively, 'killing' a narrative until it becomes public, and inspiring
journalist to self-censor. (Snow & Taylor, 2006).

Numerous Americans first became aware of the dangers of propaganda

techniques during the 2016 U.S. electoral campaign, which included not only
undercover intelligence activities and cyber - attacks by the Russian government,
but also hired people on social media and chatbots organized from inside Russia's
Online Research Organization. In a deliberate attempt to undermine public trust in
the democratic process, these social media posts reached over 100 million
Americans. They were amusing and emotionally engaging messages aimed to
humiliate democratic candidate Hillary Clinton by sowing department, uncertainty,
and defeatism (Andrews, 2019).

18
[Link] [Link]

There are seven propaganda techniques that explain how propaganda is

carried out (Hobbs & McGee, 2014) :

1. Name Calling

Name Calling technique aims to create fear, by generating prejudice using

negative words. It is intended to create a negative opinion against a group,
belief, ideology, or institution that has different views, all of which are targets
of propaganda. This technique is also often used by making conclusions
without presenting evidence.

2. Glittering Generalities

The Glittering Generalities technique is used by making words, sentences,

slogans, or statements that are associated with the values and beliefs held by
the audience without providing supporting information or reasons. Then, the
approach is carried out using ideas related to honor, love for the country, glory,
peace, freedom, and also family values.

The phrases are often captured differently by each individual, but have the
same implication, which is profitable for propagandists. The words or phrases
used are often captured differently by each person but always have the same
implications that are beneficial for the propagandist.

3. Transfer

Transfer techniques are used to transfer authority and approval of something

we respect, and respect what the propagandist has to offer. Propagandists use
symbols to evoke emotions and audience approval in this technique.

4. Testimonial

The Testimonial technique links someone who is respected or has experience

to endorse a product, or give their approval for the audience to follow what is
exemplified.

19
[Link] [Link]

5. Plain folks

The Plain Folks technique is carried out by bringing the spokesperson for the
propagandist closer as a simple figure, can be trusted by the audience, and has
the same interests as the audience. In addition, the language used when
delivering messages is simple or close to the audience, and the point of view
used is the audience's point of view. This technique is used by approaching
things that relate to the feelings of the audience, so that they are emotionally
involved.

6. Card Stacking

The Card Stacking technique is done by means of the propagandist choosing

the best case for his side, and choosing the worst case for his opponent. This is
done to support the arguments of the propagandists, so that the audience
accepts the facts presented by the propagandists as a conclusion. The Card
Stacking technique is called a technique that is difficult to detect, because not
all information is presented, but some of it is hidden for a specific purpose,
and the audience itself must find the missing information.

7. Bandwagon

The Band Wagon technique is used to persuade the audience to follow the
crowd, this is an effort to show the audience's support for the propagandist, so
that more and more people join. This technique uses audience psychology,
where they always want to be on the winning side.

In propaganda activities, there are several goals to be achieved, where these

goals differ from one another. Alo Liliweri (2011) revealed that there are at least
three objectives of propaganda, namely:

1. Influencing Public Opinion

20
[Link] [Link]

Propaganda does not merely communicate truth that can shape public
perspective on a specific issue. So, one of the aims of propaganda is to modify
the common opinion about something, which will be accompanied by actions
that are consistent with that perception. This shift in perspective can be pro or
con.

2. Manipulating Emotions

Propaganda can be achieved in a variety of ways to manipulate emotions, and

it is frequently done in ways that are harmful to the propagandists. The goal of
propaganda is to 'manipulate' the feelings of the intended audience, moving
them from complimenting to hating, from affection to dislike, and many more.
Propagandists use a variety of techniques to manipulate words, sounds,
symbols, and nonverbal messages to arouse the emotions of the audience.

3. Raising Support or Disapproval

The primary objective of propaganda is to influence the target's behaviors to

assist or dismiss a particular problem. The goal of this propaganda is to
modify people's attitudes and behaviors toward other people's behaviors.

C. American Heroism

Becker and Eagly (2004) describe a 'Hero' as a person who decides to take
risks for the benefit of one or more others, even if the risks have significant
repercussions, including death. Becker and Eagly's concept is also consistent with
the definition of 'Hero' offered by Sullivan and Venter (2010), 'Hero' or heroes are
people who undertake remarkable acts, such as saving children. In broad terms,
heroes are individuals who sacrifice their lives to help others.

By the second half of the twentieth century, the concept of American heroism
shifted dramatically. The post-World War II period enhanced American heroism.

21
[Link] [Link]

The characteristics of American heroism enlarged and were no longer strictly

connected to numerous things such as leader or political impact, affiliation to a
specific political or geographical side, and being a man of the state. The post-
World War II period saw a rising trend in American ideals upon America's
expansion to the world's greatest military and economic superpower (Fettweis,
2013).

Globalization has assisted in the global spread of American values,

particularly values deeply associated with American heroism. Furthermore, the
widespread approval that American civilization has shown for their country's
leadership influence in the world, as well as their desire to demonstrate American
heroism as a dominant and great perspective to spread globally. Walt Disney is a
great example of promoting American heroism through global influence.

The Disney company was and continues to be extremely popular among

Americans, particularly children and young viewers. The majority of Disney
artworks and animated films featured American heroism as a dominant element.
In reality, Disney's creation highlighted distributing the good aspect of the
American identity and demonstrating the significance of American ideals, which
modern American Heroism is composed of. As a consequence, Disney studios
have had a significant impact on promoting American heroism as a required
perspective to achieve.

According to (Harvey et al., 2009), heroism is associated with the bravery and
mindset to prioritize the welfare/security of others over oneself, as well as taking
responsibility for the activities completed. According to Martens (in Franco, Blau,
& Zimbardo, 2011), heroism in the context of physical activity or physical-risk
heroics is still insufficient to explain diverse types of heroism. Franco (2011) then
splits physical-risk heroism into two types: Combat Heroism (executed by
military troops) and Social Heroism (executed by citizens) (performed by civil
society). In further depth, Franco, Blau, and Zimbardo classify heroic behaviors

22
[Link] [Link]

into 12 categories depending on the two dangers they confront. The followings are
twelve heroic categories and description by Franco, Blau, & Zimbardo (2011):

1. Physical-risk

a. Army and other responsibility heroes who face bodily danger

People who work in army or in emergency service jobs where they are
often identified as high situations. Heroic acts must be performed
above and beyond the call of responsibility.

b. Civil heroes—physical risk heroes who are not on duty

Citizens who seek to save someone else from death or great bodily
harm while putting their lives at risk.

2. Social Abandonment

a. Religious leaders

Focused, existence spiritual activity that sustains the highest standards

or pioneers religion area. Frequently acts as a role model as teachers
and public servants.

b. Politician-religious leaders

Spiritual figures who entered politics in order to achieve larger reform,

or leaders who have a powerful religious belief system which
influences their political activities.

c. Martyrs

Political or religious figures that willingly (and often purposefully) put

their lives in danger in the service or to bring awareness to an
inequality.

23
[Link] [Link]

d. Politicians or army leaders

Usually, a leader of a country or organization throughout a tragic

period, as in a conflict or natural disaster. Help to unite the country,
provide a common vision, and could represent characteristics judged
necessary for the group's existence.

e. Adventurer

People who travel to unknown territories or use new and untested

forms of vehicles.

f. Intellectual heroes

People who study uncharted areas of scientific research, use

innovative and untested research techniques, or explore different
scientific knowledge that is regarded valuable to humanity.

g. Humanitarian

People who will always provide help to those in trouble. In this

circumstance, there are significant barriers to giving. There may or
may not be an immediate bodily risk.

h. Fall guy

People who have overcome a disability or difficult circumstances and

excelled in regardless of them serve as social and moral role models
for others.

i. Bureaucracy's Superheroes

Employees in large companies who are engaged in controversial

internal or cross-agency discussions. Usually, this entails being true to
one's principles in the face of tremendous demands to obey.

24
[Link] [Link]

j. Spy

People who seem to be conscious of illegal activity inside an

institution and expose it openly in order to bring about changes
voluntarily.

Later, Kohen (in Franco, Allison, Kinsella, Kohen, & Langdon, 2016) defined
Physical-risk heroism and Social heroism/Social sacrifice as "those who accept
that they are only ordinary people, but who are willing to take on serious risks or
sacrifice for a greater good." A hero is someone who acts heroically in a
circumstance similar to the one described by Kohen.

D. Charles Sander Peirce's Semiotics Theory

Semiotics is a method of evaluating media text based on the premise that

media is delivered through a variety of assumptions and indications. The meaning
of media text, which is composed of a succession of symbols, is always present
(Sobur, 2015). According to Charles Sander Peirce's Theory of Semiotics,
Semiotics is focused on logic because logic reveals how people understand,
whereas Peirce's reasoning is accomplished through signs. According to Peirce,
these signs enable us to assume, respond to others, and create meaning to what the
world shows. Humans will have a variety of signs in various aspects of their lives
in this case. The function and use of a sign is the focus of this semiotic theory.
Signs, as a communication platform, are very useful in a variety of situations and
can be used in a variety of ways.

Peirce's Semiotic Analysis can be defined as the "triangle of meaning"

because it contains three important aspects (Wibowo, 2013). The explanation is as
follows:

1. Sign is the core idea that is used as analysis material where there is
definition in the sign as a shape of interpretation of the message in discussion.

25
[Link] [Link]

Signs are typically physical or visual phenomena that are acquired by

individuals. Peirce's attempt to classify signs is unique, though not simple.
Peirce categorizes signs into three types: icon, index, and symbol, which
support the connection between the representation and its object.

Icon is a sign that represents a 'similarity' so that the wearer can easily
recognize it. The connection between the interpretant and its object is
embodied in the icon as familiarity in several characteristics.

Index is a sign that has a spectacular or intractable connection with its

object. The connection between the sign and its object is specific, real, and
generally chronological or contextual in the index.

Symbol is a form of sign that is subjective and mainstream according to a

group of people or society's consensus or tradition. Linguistic signs are
symbols in general.

2. Object is the cultural context in which the sign is used as a perspective of

meaning or is referenced.

3. Interpretant is the idea of the mindset of people who use signs to decrease
them into a specific meaning about the object linked to by a sign.

Figure 1. Peirce's semiotics triangle (Wibowo, 2013)

26
[Link] [Link]

The triadic concept gives rise to a semiosis process (triadic process) and the
relationship never breaks, that is, the interpreter will develop into a representation
and so on. The elements of the performance will be divided into three triads and
then interpreted and interpreted with meaning outside the object, as Pierce
explained that the interpretant is what the sign produces and in the mind the
interpreter and can also be understood as a representation. So that there is a
process of development in an endless interpretation in accordance with the
development of the existing time period (Wibowo, 2013).

E. Villarejo’s Film Theory

As a source of entertainment that allows us to see beyond the borders of our

experiences, movies have always had the ability to amaze, frighten, and enlighten
us. They put our senses, emotions, and even intelligence to the test, forcing us to
passionately declare our love (or hatred) for them. It's easy to get excited about
movies because they evoke our most public and private feelings and surround us
with their sights and sounds.

Furthermore, there are many elements that can be employed in interpreting a

movie or film in Villarejo's cinema studies book named The Language of Film.
The first component is mise-en-scene, a French term that refers to the theatrical
practice of staging or putting into the scene/on stage (Villarejo, 2007). This is the
first step in understanding how the film creates and reflects meaning. Nevertheless,
in addition to the mise-en-scene, cinematography is an important component.
Cinematography is concerned with the camera and framing. The frame informs us
that the picture is not only intended to be viewed, but it is also legible and
observable. There are three framing points: camera distance, camera length, and
depth angle. The shot is captured at a specific camera range from the setting and
its action. Because each camera length has a particular significance, the camera
length creates a unique viewpoint for the audience. In the meantime, the camera

27
[Link] [Link]

angle provides an emotional message to the audience and directs their opinion
about the actor or object in frame.

1. Mise-en-scène

According to James Monaco, mise-en-scene is the process of

understanding a moving image by its frames since shot is a huge unit of
meaning (Monaco, 2000). The term originates in French and relates to the
theatrical process of staging. “It preserves the theatrical implications, meaning
to “put into the scene” and indicating all that is included within the frame,”
according to cinema studies. Mise-en-scene is divided into six categories:
setting, costume, lighting, hair, make-up, and figure movement (Villarejo,
2007).

a. Setting (Sets and props)

Setting can refer to the actual location where filming is taking place,
such as gardens or roadways. However, it is also possible and certainly
produced in a studio with high-tech effects to make the actor or actress
appear to be standing in the actual environment. Sets are used to
describe not only specific locations, but also “the new worlds of
galaxies and planets beyond our own. while props seek to build a mood,
expand meaning to a setting, or attract attention to specifics within the
greater scene.” (Ibid, p.30)

b. Lighting

Lighting establishes atmosphere, focuses attention to detail, and aids

viewers in understanding the scene as well as the characters and actors
that inhabit it. (ibid, pp.32-33)

c. Costume and Hair

28
[Link] [Link]

Costume and hair contribute to the plausibility of a film's world while

make-up generates fantastic cinematic world aspects. (ibid, p.34)

d. Figure Behavior

Figure behavior is a way to depict the actors' or other characters'

(animals, beasts, animated creatures, and cyborgs'), motion, emotions,
or activities inside a specific shot. (ibid, p.35)

2. Cinematography

According to Villarejo (2007), understanding the elements of mise-en-

scene entails understanding the elements of cinematography. That's because
the camera records everything which happens on the scene. (p.36) In summary,
cinematography encompasses everything related to the camera, such as
framing. Framing helps in describing the range between the camera and the
item. (ibid, p.38)

a. The extreme long shot (ELS), where the human figure is hardly
discernible; (ibid)

b. The long shot, where humans can be seen but are overshadowed by the
environment; (ibid)

c. The medium long shot, often known as the American plan, is a body
shape that is formed from the legs up; (ibid)

d. The medium shot, the camera come in close to delineate the figure's
upper chest; (ibid)

e The medium close-up, in which we go in closer seeing the figure from

the chest area; (ibid)

f. The close-up, that distinguishes one part of a human being from another
(most notably the forehead); (ibid)

29
[Link] [Link]

g. The extreme close-up, that displays only a portion of the forehead (an
eye, nose ,the lips); (ibid)

Furthermore, three crucial aspects in cinema theory are editing, sounds, and
colors. The techniques and rationale of connecting shots together into huge strings
or sequences are referred to as editing. Speech, music, and noise are three sorts of
sounds that directly impact how we engage with visuals.

This study employs Villarejo’s film theory (2007) to go deeper into the signs.
The language of film theory is the basic theory of this research. Using the mise en-
scene theory, this theory is useful for observing the interpretation of signs shown
in the film more closely and deeply.

30